4 10 196 https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/2c83c791e63cc02c0dda94f899c43db5.jpg ad36832e37c7bc8315e0d35a9fbdbe9f https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/be8d79b4fa5c27d22f52be957b68d76d.pdf a1fa9526e509ab868e35d5820573e9b9 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era immediately following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for minorities and women. Protests became more and more common to the average American as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the KKK, which showed the darker side of life in the American South. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in the newly formed NATO against the ever-increasing and expanding Soviet Union and its fellow Communist regimes, particularly China, Korea and Vietnam. While this era is considered Postwar, it is in fact a move towards a new type of war, where campaigns are fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well, fueled strongly by the increasing influence of television news. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe, and the defeat of Japan opened previously invaded lands to the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with the tenants of Communism over those of Capitalism. The United States would spend much of this time period combating the “Domino Effect” to try and stem the spread of Communism, particularly in its own hemisphere with Cuba. At the same time, the United States invested millions into Western Europe through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan to halt the spread of Communism further west. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, on May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Before Brown v. Board of Education, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine, but for the most part, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to African Americans were inferior, not equal, to those for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of "<a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Massive_Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>," using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Almond_James_Lindsay_Jr_1898-1986#start_entry">James Lindsay Almond Jr</a>., won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold “Massive Resistance.” In September 1958, he closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk rather than see them segregated. This prompted many Virginia citizens to send letters and petitions to elected officials. This letter from Ainslee B. Dohme (1905–1979) and Alvin R. L. Dohme (b. 1911), the proprietors of Cedarbrook Farm in Cedarville, to Maurice Bowen, of the Warren County Board of Supervisors, urges the board to reopen public schools that the state government had closed. On January 19, 1959, the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals overturned the school-closing law, the same day that the federal district court in Norfolk made a similar ruling. Almond continued to appeal these rulings, however the closed schools ultimately reopened to an integrated student body. The courts ordered the admittance of small numbers of African American students into formally all-white schools around the state. The federal government put more and more pressure on the state to integrate its schools and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare threatened localities with loss of federal funding if they did not comply. U.S. Supreme Court decisions added to the pressure of desegregation, including Virginia’s own case, <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Green_Charles_C_et_al_v_County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County_Virginia">Charles C. Green et al. v. County School Board of New Kent County, Virginia.</a> Almond did not retreat from his unyielding stance on desegregation until early 1960, when he allowed Virginia schools to integrate, but only with token efforts that embraced passive resistance. Citation: Letter from Ainslee B. Dohme and Alvin R. L. Dohme, Front Royal, to Maurice Bowen, Front Royal. February 26, 1959. Warren County Board of Supervisors, Petitions and Letters For and Against Public School Integration, February–March 1959, Accession 39570. Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards VS.1, VS.9, USII.1, USII.9, CE.1, VUS.1, VUS.8, VUS.13, GOVT.1, GOVT.3, GOVT.10 Suggested Questions Analyze: Do you think this letter is effective? How would you make their point stronger? In Their Shoes: Imagine you are a parent. What kind of letter would you have drafted if your child could not attend school? Analyze: Why would Virginians want to keep schools segregated? In Their Shoes: Imagine you are a student where schools are closed. Would you have been able to receive an education? If so, how? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Ainslee B. Dohme and Alvin R.L. Dohme, Front Royal, to Maurice Bowen, Front Royal, 1959 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource February 26, 1959 African American History Government and Civics https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/e2ad86f531fd863270ffb3dd6a053af8.jpg 28c7774c9290b7f10c8b813ae68ceb4d https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/3034ab2edc1c33f54a00d001885a2216.mp3 f0602bc8a4e706b41a10918a442aaf9b https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/63b252ad098fff48c3c1561eacb0d084.pdf f66b50095a6980cd544c25ef7929f381 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era immediately following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for minorities and women. Protests became more and more common to the average American as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the KKK, which showed the darker side of life in the American South. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in the newly formed NATO against the ever-increasing and expanding Soviet Union and its fellow Communist regimes, particularly China, Korea and Vietnam. While this era is considered Postwar, it is in fact a move towards a new type of war, where campaigns are fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well, fueled strongly by the increasing influence of television news. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe, and the defeat of Japan opened previously invaded lands to the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with the tenants of Communism over those of Capitalism. The United States would spend much of this time period combating the “Domino Effect” to try and stem the spread of Communism, particularly in its own hemisphere with Cuba. At the same time, the United States invested millions into Western Europe through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan to halt the spread of Communism further west. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, on May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Before Brown v. Board of Education, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine, but for the most part, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of "<a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Massive_Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>," using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation. In this audio clip, Governor Thomas Stanley addresses Virginia’s first steps toward making the changes demanded by the Brown v. Board decision. It soon became clear that Governor Thomas Stanley, along with many other white politicians in Southside Virginia (where the powerful <a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Byrd_Organization">Byrd Organization</a>’s political base resided) would not accept desegregation under any circumstance. Stanley created a committee to respond to the Brown decision, composed primarily of Southside politicians. This resulted in the “Gray Plan,” named after the committee’s chairman, segregationist Garland Gray, which gave the localities the choice to desegregate their schools and additionally provided legislation that would allow the localities to skirt integration if they wished. Citation: Governor Thomas B. Stanley Response to the United States Supreme Court Decision in Brown v. Board of Education. May 17, 1954 (WRVA–386). WRVA Radio Collection, Accession 38210, Library of Virginia. Standards VS.1, VS.9, USII.1, USII.8, VUS.1, VUS.13, VUS.14 Suggested Questions Analyze: How would you rate Governor Stanley's statements on school integration. Does he make his point clearly? Social Media Spin: Create a series of tweets and hashtags that you would have used in favor of school integration as if you were a grassroots leader. In Their Shoes: Imagine you are a reporter covering Governor Stanley’s response. What are some questions you would ask him? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Governor Stanley Response to Decision in Brown v. Board of Education, Audio Clip, 1954 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource May 17, 1954 African American History Government and Civics https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/9a41682110f49f1b2a0dc2901ffe16f8.jpg 2239d1cd140c314d7c7772bd20246f7e https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/2356848e0c0fc588c943bf324e2d2bc8.pdf 327ddae93e813fb7286cf274c8abebd6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era immediately following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for minorities and women. Protests became more and more common to the average American as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the KKK, which showed the darker side of life in the American South. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in the newly formed NATO against the ever-increasing and expanding Soviet Union and its fellow Communist regimes, particularly China, Korea and Vietnam. While this era is considered Postwar, it is in fact a move towards a new type of war, where campaigns are fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well, fueled strongly by the increasing influence of television news. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe, and the defeat of Japan opened previously invaded lands to the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with the tenants of Communism over those of Capitalism. The United States would spend much of this time period combating the “Domino Effect” to try and stem the spread of Communism, particularly in its own hemisphere with Cuba. At the same time, the United States invested millions into Western Europe through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan to halt the spread of Communism further west. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, on May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Before Brown v. Board of Education, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine, but for the most part, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those for white Americans. Opponents of the Brown ruling and integration used the doctrine of interposition, which argued that the state could “interpose” between an unconstitutional federal mandate and local authorities based on state sovereignty. James Jackson Kilpatrick, editor of the Richmond News Leader, vigorously criticized the court decisions to end segregation and was one of the leading public advocates of interposition. Ultimately, the General Assembly adopted a resolution of interposition in 1956, which clearly defied the authority of the federal courts. By February, with momentum building behind the segregationist movement, Byrd made a public call for "<a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Massive_Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>" against Brown. Citation: “Interposition: Yesterday and Today,” 2 February 1956, The Richmond News Leader, Richmond, Virginia: Newspapers, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards VS.1, VS.9, USII.1, USII.9, CE.1, VUS.1, VUS.8, VUS.13, GOVT.1, GOVT.3, GOVT.10 Suggested Questions Artistic Exploration: Create a political cartoon depicting interposition. Analyze: Why do you think opponents of Brown v. Board of Education used the idea of interposition? Could this be used for other arguments as well? Analyze: Why do you think people supported “Massive Resistance”? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Richmond News Leader on Interposition, February 2, 1956 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource February 2, 1956 African American History Government and Civics https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/5e8c76b408158faa8fcc3164f85ec532.jpg f03b92f33b09c6515adbc0e55a54eeb6 https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/ecfbc6a6ffa7446f24e76ad0b5311b65.pdf b1d590a3ac095f24597d578306601918 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era immediately following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for minorities and women. Protests became more and more common to the average American as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the KKK, which showed the darker side of life in the American South. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in the newly formed NATO against the ever-increasing and expanding Soviet Union and its fellow Communist regimes, particularly China, Korea and Vietnam. While this era is considered Postwar, it is in fact a move towards a new type of war, where campaigns are fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well, fueled strongly by the increasing influence of television news. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe, and the defeat of Japan opened previously invaded lands to the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with the tenants of Communism over those of Capitalism. The United States would spend much of this time period combating the “Domino Effect” to try and stem the spread of Communism, particularly in its own hemisphere with Cuba. At the same time, the United States invested millions into Western Europe through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan to halt the spread of Communism further west. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, on May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Before Brown v. Board of Education, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine, but for the most part, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of "<a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Massive_Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>," using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation. In 1959, the Prince Edward County Board of Supervisors closed its public schools and later provided tax money to support private, white-only schools. It was clear that Governor <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Stanley_Thomas_Bahnson_1890-1970">Thomas Stanley</a>, along with many other white politicians in Southside Virginia (where the powerful <a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Byrd_Organization">Byrd Organization</a>’s political base resided) would not accept desegregation under any circumstance. Stanley created a committee to respond to the Brown decision, composed primarily of Southside politicians. This resulted in the “Gray Plan,” named after the committee’s chairman, segregationist Garland Gray, which gave the localities the choice to desegregate their schools and additionally provided legislation that would allow the localities to skirt integration if they wished. A number of newspapers around the state addressed their views on desegregation, including the likely author of this article, <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Chambers_Joseph_Lenoir_Jr_1891-1970#start_entry">Lenoir Chambers</a>. Chambers became associate editor of the Norfolk Virginian-Pilot in 1929, where he worked closely with editor <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Jaff%C3%A9_Louis_Isaac_ca_1888-1950">Louis Isaac Jaffé</a>, who had just become Virginia’s first Pulitzer Prize winner for his antilynching advocacy. In 1950, Chambers became editor of the Pilot when Jaffé passed away. Chambers became one of a small group of white southern editors who urged compliance with Brown v. Board of Education. For five years after the decision, he pushed an unrelenting editorial campaign which opposed Massive Resistance. These editorials prepared the public for eventual desegregation and peaceful integration of Virginia schools. His advocacy reached a high point in the fall of 1959 and winter of 1959, after Governor <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Almond_James_Lindsay_Jr_1898-1986">James Lindsay Almond Jr.</a> closed Norfolk’s white secondary schools. Chambers provided leadership for pro-school forces, and the state and federal courts reopened the city’s schools in early 1959. Citation: “Pilot Bill Without a Compass” 4 December 1955, Norfolk Virginian Pilot, Norfolk, Virginia: Newspapers, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards VS.1, VS.9, USII.1, USII.9, CE.1, VUS.1, VUS.8, VUS.13, GOVT.1, GOVT.3, GOVT.10 Suggested Questions In Their Shoes: Write a short newspaper article with your own opinions of Brown v. Board of Education. Analyze: What kind of effect do you think newspapers had on the public? Do you think their opinion pieces changed the minds of people in society? Current Connections: What are some issues that the media differs on today? Do you think this is what it was like during Brown v. Board of Education? Social Media Spin: Create a 280-character summary, including hashtags, on Brown v. Board of Education. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Norfolk Virginian Pilot on Desegregation, December 4, 1955 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource December 4, 1955 African American History Government and Civics https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/06607acd9feca9ab3190f773bc28adf8.jpg f8e1a43b916afe0cd8d7c811d53bf001 https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/57fff58cd8a445695b5acd0190cfa664.pdf 9b91da8d601146f838d83408228245ad Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era immediately following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for minorities and women. Protests became more and more common to the average American as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the KKK, which showed the darker side of life in the American South. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in the newly formed NATO against the ever-increasing and expanding Soviet Union and its fellow Communist regimes, particularly China, Korea and Vietnam. While this era is considered Postwar, it is in fact a move towards a new type of war, where campaigns are fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well, fueled strongly by the increasing influence of television news. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe, and the defeat of Japan opened previously invaded lands to the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with the tenants of Communism over those of Capitalism. The United States would spend much of this time period combating the “Domino Effect” to try and stem the spread of Communism, particularly in its own hemisphere with Cuba. At the same time, the United States invested millions into Western Europe through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan to halt the spread of Communism further west. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, on May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Before Brown v. Board of Education, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine, but for the most part, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of "<a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Massive_Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>," using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation. In 1959, the Prince Edward County Board of Supervisors closed its public schools and later provided tax money to support private, white-only schools. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Almond_James_Lindsay_Jr_1898-1986#start_entry">James Lindsay Almond Jr.</a>, won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold “Massive Resistance.” In September 1958, he closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk rather than see them segregated, regardless of the letters like this one that he received to reopen the schools. By January 1959, both the federal court and state supreme court demanded that schools be reopened and Massive Resistance laws overturned. However, <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Moton_School_Strike_and_Prince_Edward_County_School_Closings#start_entry">Prince Edward County</a> officials defied these court orders and on June 26, 1959, the county board of supervisors voted to cut off revenues to the public schools. Prince Edward was the only locality in the nation to take this step and they were heavily encouraged by segregationists across both the state and the South. The schools did not open on September 10th as scheduled, and they remained closed for the next five years. While white students attended the new private school, Prince Edward Academy, Black students were left with no educational facilities. Some local churches provided rudimentary education and some Black students attended classes in nearby counties, or, with the aid of Quaker-affiliated American Friends Service Committee, relocated. However most Black students had no form of education, and most Black teachers lost their jobs. In February 1963, President John F. Kennedy spoke about Prince Edward County in a civil rights address to Congress. While attending a centennial celebration for the Emancipation Proclamation on March 18, 1963, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy urged action in Prince Edward County, noting that "the only places on earth not to provide free public education are Communist China, North Vietnam, Sarawak, Singapore, British Honduras—and Prince Edward County, Virginia." Kennedy's administration joined state and private organizers in the Prince Edward County Free School Association, which rented three of the closed public schools for Black students to attend during the 1963–1964 school year. On May 11, 1964, Robert F. Kennedy visited Prince Edward County to observe the Free Schools, which, during the 1963-1964 school year, about 1,500 students (including four white children) attended. Citation: Robert Kennedy Visited Prince Edward County Schools, May 11, 1964. Robert Kennedy in Prince Edward. From Southern School News 10, no. 12 (June 1964):10, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards VS.1, VS.9, USII.1, USII.9, CE.1, VUS.1, VUS.8, VUS.13, GOVT.1, GOVT.3, GOVT.10 Suggested Questions Political Plans: If you were President John F. Kennedy, how would you have responded to Virginia’s reactions to Brown v. Board of Education and the policy of “Massive Resistance”? In Their Shoes: Write a short newspaper article matching this photograph on Robert F. Kennedy’s visit to Prince Edward County. Include your opinions on Brown v. Board of Education. Analyze: Why do you think Robert F. Kennedy visited Prince Edward County rather than somewhere else? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Robert Kennedy Visit at Prince Edward County Schools, May 11, 1964 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource May 11, 1964 African American History Government and Civics https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/bd376332899dd959611a65367f903622.jpg d9fb61f789e3388166db8665889a56f9 https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/bcf70420d64a89f2d604e15dbe2e1e84.pdf 86652c24ca17d751eb07c0cd930db930 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era immediately following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for minorities and women. Protests became more and more common to the average American as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the KKK, which showed the darker side of life in the American South. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in the newly formed NATO against the ever-increasing and expanding Soviet Union and its fellow Communist regimes, particularly China, Korea and Vietnam. While this era is considered Postwar, it is in fact a move towards a new type of war, where campaigns are fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well, fueled strongly by the increasing influence of television news. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe, and the defeat of Japan opened previously invaded lands to the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with the tenants of Communism over those of Capitalism. The United States would spend much of this time period combating the “Domino Effect” to try and stem the spread of Communism, particularly in its own hemisphere with Cuba. At the same time, the United States invested millions into Western Europe through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan to halt the spread of Communism further west. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Indigenous and Native American peoples, including Virginia Indian tribes were not considered American citizens even after ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. They often faced discrimination and were denied the equal protection of the laws. Under segregation laws, Virginia Indian children could not attend public schools in Virginia unless they were willing to attend schools established for Black children. Between 1880 and 1920, many Indigenous and Native American communities established their own schools rather than attend Black schools. In this way, Indigenous peoples resisted the color line by insisting on the creation of “Indian” as a third category. In Virginia, the Pamunkey tribe went so far as to carry membership cards with them so they could not be forced onto the “colored” railway coaches or other segregated services. The Pamunkey Tribe established its own school, which consisted of a single-story frame building. The Pamunkey Indian Reservation was established c. 1646 and may be the oldest reservation in North America. The Pamunkey, Mattaponi and Upper Mattaponi tribes, who still reside on ancient tribal reservations in King William County, had been exempt from taxation since the seventeenth century and did not initially gain access to the local public schools. Even after the first statewide system of public schools was created in 1870, Virginia Indian tribes may not have been included. The Pamunkey Indian School was a one-room frame schoolhouse established in May 1909. Students from grades 1- 7 attended the school. Due to segregation laws enacted schools in Virginia, students wishing to continue their educations either had to leave home to attend a government schools specifically designed for Indigenous or Native American peoples in other states or they had to quit school before completing their education. The school was closed due to low attendance in 1948. The remaining students were transferred to the Mattaponi Reservation School. The Pamunkey Indian School is now part of the tribal museum on the Pamunkey Reservation. Citation: Pamunkey Schoolhouse Photograph, May 31, 1937; Pamunkey Indian School, Pamunkey Indian Reservation, King William County, School Buildings Service Photograph Collection, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia Standards VS.1, VS.2, VS.9, USII.1, CE.1, CE.3, VUS.1, VUS.8, GOVT.1, GOVT.3 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Look at It: Look carefully at the Pamunkey School House photograph. From the picture, what can you assume about the size of the school? What do you think it might have been like to attend the school? What do you notice about the children in the photograph? Post Activities Analyze: Why do you think Indigenous and Native peoples were not considered American citizens? Why do you think they were treated this way? Current Connections: The Pamunkey Indian School building still stands on the Pamunkey Indian Reservation as part of a museum and cultural center. Why is important for this building to be left intact? What might is symbolize for the Pamunkey people? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pamunkey Schoolhouse Photograph, May 31, 1937 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource May 31, 1937 American Indian History Government and Civics https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/7b5be075ebce94a7f0068d4b5d60929b.jpg e3e1d8d547ef64d53e87ac250ce0e15a https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/9f12d074db2542c8ef0ffe89d1bae8ca.mp3 441432ed264b96468efb9edb8048dc12 https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/b254a6c256c78dc44b0cbc8cc1685a94.pdf e3067f6a284c791c9266973c754d7df1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era immediately following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for minorities and women. Protests became more and more common to the average American as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the KKK, which showed the darker side of life in the American South. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in the newly formed NATO against the ever-increasing and expanding Soviet Union and its fellow Communist regimes, particularly China, Korea and Vietnam. While this era is considered Postwar, it is in fact a move towards a new type of war, where campaigns are fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well, fueled strongly by the increasing influence of television news. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe, and the defeat of Japan opened previously invaded lands to the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with the tenants of Communism over those of Capitalism. The United States would spend much of this time period combating the “Domino Effect” to try and stem the spread of Communism, particularly in its own hemisphere with Cuba. At the same time, the United States invested millions into Western Europe through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan to halt the spread of Communism further west. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Transcription Any written text transcribed from a sound test Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Sound Clip Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 3 minutes 10 seconds Context After nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, on May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Before Brown v. Board of Education, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine, but for the most part, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of "<a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Massive_Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>," using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Almond_James_Lindsay_Jr_1898-1986#start_entry">James Lindsay Almond Jr.</a>, won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold “Massive Resistance.” In September 1958, he closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk rather than see them segregated, regardless of letters that he received to reopen the schools. However, on January 19, 1959, the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals overturned the school-closing law, the same day that the federal district court in Norfolk made a similar ruling. Almond continued to appeal these rulings, however the closed schools ultimately reopened to an integrated student body. The courts ordered the admittance of small numbers of Black students into formally all-white schools around the state. The federal government put more and more pressure on the state to integrate its schools and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare threatened localities with loss of federal funding if they did not comply. U.S. Supreme Court decisions added to the pressure of desegregation, including Virginia’s own case, <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Green_Charles_C_et_al_v_County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County_Virginia">Charles C. Green et al. v. County School Board of New Kent County, Virginia</a>. Almond did not retreat from his unyielding stance on desegregation until early 1960, when he allowed Virginia schools to integrate, but only with token efforts that embraced passive resistance. Citation: J. Lindsay Almond School Integration Speech, 20 January 1959 (WRVA–386), WRVA Radio Collection, Accession 38210, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards VS.1, VS.9, USII.1, USII.9, CE.1, VUS.1, VUS.8, VUS.13, GOVT.1, GOVT.3, GOVT.10 Suggested Questions In Their Shoes: Assume the role of a newspaper editorialist and compose a response to Governor Almond arguing with at least three of his specific reasons why integration is a bad thing for the Commonwealth. Analyze: Explain why the reference to Soviet Russia would have been included in this speech to address the topic of segregation. Current Connections: Imagine if a political leader today made this speech. How do you think people would react? Artistic Exploration: Create a political cartoon depicting Almond and this speech. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource J. Lindsay Almond School Integration Speech, January 20, 1959 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource January 20, 1959 African American History Government and Civics https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/8095bb482e5bb1ce4bb7c8d382e8345e.jpg eefa9cc4475b271bd75a1b28eb643163 https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/858e7204022fdf5dca9c41bf32e69e6f.jpg 54102d5ca6b19341c676c3c6cfd88568 https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/ad37c12b8bf0648d0103a45673da120e.pdf 1da8e9b7927531b44479850bfe96b47a Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era immediately following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for minorities and women. Protests became more and more common to the average American as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the KKK, which showed the darker side of life in the American South. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in the newly formed NATO against the ever-increasing and expanding Soviet Union and its fellow Communist regimes, particularly China, Korea and Vietnam. While this era is considered Postwar, it is in fact a move towards a new type of war, where campaigns are fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well, fueled strongly by the increasing influence of television news. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe, and the defeat of Japan opened previously invaded lands to the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with the tenants of Communism over those of Capitalism. The United States would spend much of this time period combating the “Domino Effect” to try and stem the spread of Communism, particularly in its own hemisphere with Cuba. At the same time, the United States invested millions into Western Europe through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan to halt the spread of Communism further west. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, on May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Before Brown v. Board of Education, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine, but for the most part, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of "<a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Massive_Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>," using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Almond_James_Lindsay_Jr_1898-1986#start_entry">James Lindsay Almond Jr</a>., won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold “Massive Resistance.” In September 1958, he closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk rather than see them segregated, regardless of the letters like this one that he received to reopen the schools. By January 1959, both the federal court and state supreme court demanded that schools be reopened and Massive Resistance laws overturned. However, <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Moton_School_Strike_and_Prince_Edward_County_School_Closings#start_entry">Prince Edward County</a> officials defied these court orders, and on June 26, 1959, the county board of supervisors voted to cut off revenues to the public schools. Prince Edward was the only locality in the nation to take this step, and they were heavily encouraged by segregationists across both the state and the South. The schools did not open on September 10th as scheduled, and they remained closed for the next five years. White students quickly attended Prince Edward Academy – a new private school supported by state-approved tuition grants and donations - many of which were from segregationists. However, Black students were left with no educational facilities. Some local churches provided rudimentary education, and some Black students attended classes in nearby counties, or, with the aid of Quaker-affiliated American Friends Service Committee, relocated. However most Black students had no form of education, and most Black teachers lost their jobs. Legal battles for the schools to reopen and integrate continued between lawyers for Prince Edward County and the NAACP from 1959 to 1964 and attracted national attention. Finally, on May 25, 1964, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward that the county had violated the students’ right to an education and ordered the schools to be reopened. Citation: Letter from Baptist Ministers’ Conference of Norfolk, Portsmouth, and Vicinity, to Governor J. Lindsay Almond Jr., Richmond. January 19, 1960. Virginia, Governor (1958 – 1962), Executive Papers, 1958-1962, Accession 26230, State Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards SOLS: VS.1, VS.9, USII.1, USII.9, CE.1, VUS.1, VUS.8, VUS.13, GOVT.1, GOVT.3, GOVT.10 Suggested Questions Virginia Validation: Virginia often seems to be in the spotlight for much larger, national issues. Why do you think Virginia has had such a long and varied history near the center of political and social conflict? Artistic Exploration: Create your own artistic interpretation of what the schools may have looked like before Brown v. Board or after. How are they different? Current Connections: Do you think all students receive an equal education today in the United States? Why or why not? In Their Shoes: Imagine you were a student in Prince Edward County when the schools were closed. Would you have been able to receive an education? If so, how? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Baptist Ministers’ Conference of Norfolk, Portsmouth, and Vicinity, to Governor James Lindsay Almond, January 19, 1960 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource January 19, 1960 African American History Government and Civics https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/e8edabd55a3c9f2a007ad0ff20f36f21.jpg 104a19d4c10eb0fa9d5f7d487f26fa5f https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/37c1239da1815975f75793c4ba96c291.pdf 1a2d85697c176a7f132ad97ae6b9e94e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era immediately following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for minorities and women. Protests became more and more common to the average American as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the KKK, which showed the darker side of life in the American South. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in the newly formed NATO against the ever-increasing and expanding Soviet Union and its fellow Communist regimes, particularly China, Korea and Vietnam. While this era is considered Postwar, it is in fact a move towards a new type of war, where campaigns are fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well, fueled strongly by the increasing influence of television news. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe, and the defeat of Japan opened previously invaded lands to the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with the tenants of Communism over those of Capitalism. The United States would spend much of this time period combating the “Domino Effect” to try and stem the spread of Communism, particularly in its own hemisphere with Cuba. At the same time, the United States invested millions into Western Europe through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan to halt the spread of Communism further west. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, on May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Before Brown v. Board of Education, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine, but for the most part, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of "<a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Massive_Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>," using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Almond_James_Lindsay_Jr_1898-1986#start_entry">James Lindsay Almond Jr</a>., won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold “Massive Resistance.” In September 1958, he closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk rather than see them segregated, regardless of the petitions like this one that he received to reopen the schools. However, on January 19, 1959, the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals overturned the school-closing law, the same day that the federal district court in Norfolk made a similar ruling. Almond continued to appeal these rulings, however the closed schools ultimately reopened to an integrated student body. The courts ordered the admittance of small numbers of Black students into formally all-white schools around the state. The federal government put more and more pressure on the state to integrate its schools and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare threatened localities with loss of federal funding if they did not comply. U.S. Supreme Court decisions added to the pressure of desegregation, including Virginia’s own case, <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Green_Charles_C_et_al_v_County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County_Virginia">Charles C. Green et al. v. County School Board of New Kent County, Virginia</a>. Almond did not retreat from his unyielding stance on desegregation until early 1960, when he allowed Virginia schools to integrate, but only with token efforts that embraced passive resistance. Citation: Petition from students at Lane High School, Charlottesville, to reopen, to Governor J. Lindsay Almond Jr., Richmond. September 1958. Virginia, Governor (1958 – 1962), Executive Papers, 1958-1962, Accession 26230, Box 136, Barcode 1052833, Folder Norfolk Segregation, State Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards VS.1, VS.9, USII.1, USII.9, CE.1, VUS.1, VUS.8, VUS.13, GOVT.1, GOVT.3, GOVT.10 Suggested Questions In Their Shoes: Imagine you are one of the students who signed this petition. What would it be like for you if the schools were closed? In Their Shoes: Imagine you were a student at this school during this time. Create a petition to Governor Stanley on why you think the schools should be open and your thoughts on Brown v. Board of Education. Analyze: What do you think schools would be like in your area if Brown v. Board of Education never happened? What would your life and your fellow students’ lives be like? Social Media Spin: Create a 280-character summary, including hashtags, to Governor Stanley during this time. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Petition from Students at Lane High School, Charlottesville, to Reopen, September 1958 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource September 1985 African American History Government and Civics https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/26ab01ef3ab018c2135c683ba134dc7d.jpg 7a95a453e805bdf1eaf20719d94c7e8d https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/c4b2704b80fd4dee2e22c67261a976f3.jpg fc3c7d7f4435815067d3d9a8a2f6d635 https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/607bb8df71d01384ad73b0910453f831.jpg dbae287815bfe3a489138df791a6c99a https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/dc5dd82903823ecd52881ee5c60d6dc3.pdf 211d3a41869956ccde7e1a0859eb9b4d https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/2901149d698f63d14ca8a920ce228819.pdf af5d9984e57f13639406948901c2e214 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era immediately following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for minorities and women. Protests became more and more common to the average American as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the KKK, which showed the darker side of life in the American South. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in the newly formed NATO against the ever-increasing and expanding Soviet Union and its fellow Communist regimes, particularly China, Korea and Vietnam. While this era is considered Postwar, it is in fact a move towards a new type of war, where campaigns are fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well, fueled strongly by the increasing influence of television news. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe, and the defeat of Japan opened previously invaded lands to the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with the tenants of Communism over those of Capitalism. The United States would spend much of this time period combating the “Domino Effect” to try and stem the spread of Communism, particularly in its own hemisphere with Cuba. At the same time, the United States invested millions into Western Europe through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan to halt the spread of Communism further west. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, on May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Before Brown v. Board of Education, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine, but for the most part, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of "<a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Massive_Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>," using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation. The Brown v. Board of Education decision and Virginia’s policy of Massive Resistance prompted many Virginia citizens to send letters and petitions to elected officials. However, it soon became clear that Governor Thomas Stanley, along with many other white politicians in Southside Virginia (where the powerful <a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Byrd_Organization">Byrd Organization</a>’s political base resided) would not accept desegregation under any circumstance. Stanley created a committee to respond to the Brown decision, composed primarily of Southside politicians. This resulted in the “Gray Plan,” named after the committee’s chairman, segregationist Garland Gray, which gave the localities the choice to desegregate their schools and additionally provided legislation that would allow the localities to skirt integration if they wished. Citation: Letter from Eliza E. Fitch, Charlottesville, to Governor Thomas B. Stanley, Richmond. June 26, 1954. Virginia, Governor (1954 – 1958: Stanley), Executive Papers, 1954-1958, Accession 25184, Box 110, Barcode 1057563, Folder Integration 1954, State Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards VS.1, VS.9, USII.1, USII.9, CE.1, VUS.1, VUS.8, VUS.13, GOVT.1, GOVT.3, GOVT.10 Suggested Questions In Their Shoes: Write your own letter addressed to Governor Stanley on what you think of his decision on Massive Resistance. Analyze: Why did Eliza E. Fitch bring up the Army? Does it make her argument stronger? Analyze: From your reading and study, how do you believe the experiences of a Black student in a Virginia public school were different from that of a white student? Be specific. Political Plans: If you were the governor of Virginia, how would you have responded to Virginian's reactions to Brown v. Board of Education? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Eliza E. Fitch to Governor Thomas B. Stanley on Brown v. Board, June 26, 1954 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource June 26, 1954 African American History Government and Civics