After the American Revolution, relations between the United States and Great Britain remained strained. In its long war with France, Britain imposed a blockade on neutral countries, including the United States, that disrupted shipping and trade. Additionally, the British seized sailors from American ships and impressed them into the British navy. In 1812, Congress approved a declaration of war, and the United States was soon fighting a war with the motto "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights."
The battles ranged throughout the United States and into Canada, with naval battles fought in the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. In Virginia, the British blockaded the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay and raided coastal settlements. In August 1814, the British marched into Washington, D.C., and set fire to the Capitol and the White House. Days later, the city of Alexandria, which had no forces to defend it, surrendered to the British who promised not to destroy the town if the citizens surrendered all naval stores, shipping, and merchandise being exported. In September, the British attempted to capture Baltimore, Maryland, but were repulsed by the American troops at Fort McHenry. The war ended when the Treaty of Ghent was signed on December 24, 1814.
These two engravings by Scottish-born artist William Charles (1776–1820) contrast the resistance—or lack thereof—to the British invasions of Alexandria and Baltimore. As their cities fell under attack, citizens were left with a difficult choice: fight the invaders and risk losing everything, or submit and hope for mercy. In the drawings, the Baltimore militia chooses resistance and surprises John Bull (the symbol of England) with their ability to defend their city. In the other drawing, John Bull forces the Alexandrians, who are depicted as cowards, to forfeit all their goods. The prints were likely intended to be sold together as companion pieces.
Citation: "Johnny Bull and the Alexandrians" and "John Bull and the Baltimoreans," lithographs by William Charles, 1814. Special Collections, Prints & Photographs, Library of Virginia.
Social Studies: GOVT.1 VUS.1
Art: 4.1, 5.1
Preview Activity
Look at It: Look at the caricatures. What do you immediately notice about them? Who do you think the Bull represents? Why?
Post Activities
Analyze: Read the transcriptions for the caricatures. Based on the information, what does the information provided reveal about the repercussions for the decisions made in Alexandria and Baltimore?The Seaboard Air Line (SAL) Railway was chartered from April 14, 1900, until July 1, 1967, when it was merged with another railroad line, Atlantic Coast Railroad to form the Seaboard Coast Line Railroad. The SAL Railway originated from several railroad lines that dated from the 1830’s, with the earliest known SAL route running from Norlina, North Carolina to Portsmouth, Virginia. Playing a crucial roll in American commerce, SAL and other railway lines transported goods such as timber, minerals, and agricultural products to areas across the southeast. The company was based in Norfolk until 1958, when its main offices were relocated to Richmond. The railway published a newspaper headquartered in Portsmouth called the S.A.L. Magundi.
SAL and several other railroads were consolidated into a system with twenty-six hundred miles of track from Virginia to Florida. The main line ran from Richmond via Raleigh, North Carolina to Columbia, South Carolina, Savannah, Georgia, and ended in Jacksonville, Florida. These lines spurred the development of the tourism industry in the southeastern U.S., especially Florida as passengers could board other railways taking them to tourist destinations like Tampa, St. Petersburg, West Palm Beach, and Miami.
Citation: Whitehead and Hoag. Seaboard Air Line Railway, Enamel Lapel Pin, n.d., Ephemera Collection, Manuscripts & Special Collections, Library of Virginia
History: VS.1, VS.9, VUS.1, VUS.8, CE.12, CE.13
Art: 4.1, 5.1
Preview Activity
Look at It: What might be the importance of the lapel pin? Who might have worn it? Why would a railway line create such an item?
Post Activities
Think About It: SAL and other railway lines are credited with being of importance to the rebuilding of the southeastern United States in the late-1800’s. Why is this the case? What might have happened if the railway lines did not merge?
Artistic Exploration: Design a poster, incorporating this lapel pin design, promoting the SAL route.
By the 1870s, bicycles and tricycles using wire-spoked wheels were common, particularly in England. Albert A. Pope became the first American bicycle manufacturer under the trade name “Columbia” in Connecticut in 1878.
The popularity of bicycles in America increased rapidly in the 1890s with the advent of the safety bicycle with equal-sized wheels that allowed the rider's feet to reach the ground. Automobiles were expensive and not widely available, horses and carriages were expensive to maintain, and public transportation was not efficient. The bicycle met the need for inexpensive individual transportation and, as a result, the new industry expanded rapidly. The bicycle provided people with a means of affordable travel. As more people relied on bicycles, existing roads were improved and new roads were constructed.
Bicycles also contributed to social change in the United States as people were able more freely to move about, especially women. Clothing styles changed from corsets and long skirts to divided skirts and bloomers. Women enjoyed greater opportunities to leave their house without needing a chaperone. They could ride alone or with groups of other women. The independence bicycles offered inspired some women to take up the cause of the growing suffrage movement as more women could attend meetings and events. Susan B. Anthony reportedly claimed in 1896 that "the bicycle has done more for the emancipation of women than anything else in the world."
Virginians embraced cycling and local newspapers included advertisements offering bicycles designed for female riders and women’s fashions for bicycling. National periodicals also published stories, articles, and cartoons about bicycling. Puck was one of the first successful humor magazines in the United States with its colorful, witty cartoons covering politics and social issues late in the 19th century. In this cartoon from an 1897 issue of Puck, the cartoonist shows a novice rider concentrating on her bicycle. Several of the advertisements on the page are for bicycles and accessories.
Citation: Puck Magazine, v. 41, no. 1046, Mar. 24, 1897, Rare Book Collection, Manuscripts & Special Collections, Library of Virginia.
Preview Activity
Look at It: Look at the cartoon and the advertisements on this page. Who might be the target audience? Why?
Post Activities
Analyze: How did the use of the bicycle connect to the broader social or political messages in the 1890s? What other groups of people would have benefited from the inexpensive transportation offered by the bicycle?
Artistic Expression: Imagine that you must market this bicycle on behalf of the company. Create an advertisement or poster that would attract new customers.
Think About It: Write a journal entry as if you were living in a major U.S. city in the 1890s and how a bicycle would have affected your daily routine.
Preview Activity
Look at It: Examine the photograph closely. What can you speculate about the economic status of the mother and child in the picture, and how might this have any effect on the "point" of the photograph? Be specific.
Post Activities
Analyze: How do you think the wider publication of a diverse number of books affected Virginians and Americans across the United States? How did this influence education and the writer of publications?Women served in many capacities during the American Revolution. Thousands of women traveled with their husbands when they served in the Continental Army. Known as "camp followers," they marched with the supply wagons, set up camps nearby, and cooked, did laundry, mended clothing, and assisted with medical treatment when necessary. Some women carried water to troops on the battlefield, both to drink and to cool the cannons.
According to legends popularized during the 19th century, a woman known as Molly Pitcher was bringing water to the troops during the Battle of Monmouth in June 1778. When her husband was killed in the battle she immediately took his place firing the artillery piece or cannon. In one story, a cannon ball from the opposing side landed between her legs, missing her body by mere inches. Undaunted, she reportedly continued firing the cannon for the rest of the battle. A number of 19th century artists illustrated the dramatic story in paintings and engravings, including this one by English engraver James Charles Armytage that was published in Battles of America by Sea and Land (1861), by Robert Tomes.
Over time, several women have become associated with the story, which was not recounted during the war. One is Mary Hays McCauly, whose husband enlisted in the Continental Army in 1776 and died in 1786, not in battle during the war. After his death Mary applied for a pension from the state of Pennsylvania as the widow of a soldier. In 1822, Mary received an annual pension of $40 for “services rendered,” although the services were not specified and the amount was a standard widow's pension. Another woman is Margaret Corbin, who accompanied her husband to war. He was killed during the battle of Fort Washington in November 1776, whereupon she took up his gun and was wounded under fire. In 1779 the Continental Congress awarded her a lifetime pension and a suit of clothes for her actions on the battlefield.
It is unknown if the story of Molly Pitcher refers to one woman or whether Molly Pitcher is a composite figure of various women who served in a variety of roles during the war. The name “Molly" was a nickname for Mary, a common name during the time, and “Pitcher” described the task of fetching water. Whether or not "Molly Pitcher" herself existed, the legend reflects the bravery of the many women who participated in America's Revolutionary War.
Citation: Portrait, Molly Pitcher, engraving by J.C. Armytage. Harry C. Mann Photograph Collection, Visual Studies Collection, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.
Related entry: Anna Maria Lane, Commendation and Pension
Preview Activity
Artistic Exploration: Look the drawing of Molly Pitcher at the cannon. Notice the posture and facial expressions of the soldiers around her. What can you conclude about her actions and role in the battle?
Post Activities
Artistic Exploration: Draw cartoons or images of Molly Pitcher taking on various roles that women might have during the Revolution.
Another Perspective: Write a diary entry for a day in the life of Molly Pitcher or a camp follower. What did you do? What challenges did you face?
Analyze: Look at the image and using your knowledge of the American Revolution, why were camp followers like Mary Hays important? How might have the actions of the women during the American Revolution be reflected in the many roles women play in the modern American military?
As women participated in the movement to abolish slavery during the first half of the 19th century, some of them also began to advocate for women's rights. In July 1848, a group of women and men held a convention in Seneca Falls, New York. They signed a "Declaration of Sentiments," drafted by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, which called for women's equality and the right to vote, also known as suffrage. As the woman suffrage movement gained more support throughout the country, it also raised a great deal of public scrutiny. Many people, including women, questioned how women would be able to meet the demands of their domestic duties at home while participating in public activities, such as attending political rallies or making speeches. Since the colonial era, women in America had been considered a dependent class, under the responsibility of their fathers, husbands, or brothers. The growing women's rights movement challenged the prevailing social norms.
Political cartoons have often been used to express opinions and concerns. They are often satirical, using humor, exaggeration, irony, and ridicule to persuade a reader to think about current events from a particular point of view. In this Currier and Ives cartoon published in 1869, "Age of Brass: Or the Triumphs of Woman's Rights," the cartoonist depicted a scene of what might happen if women were given the right to vote. It shows a group of extravagantly dressed women lined up at the ballot box to vote for "The Celebrated Man Tamer: Susan Sharp-Tongue" and for "Miss Hangman" as sheriff. At the end of the line is a woman holding up her fist to a man carrying a baby, highlighting the potential effects of gender role reversal as women took on different roles in society. The women are wearing very elaborate and somewhat masculine-looking clothing and some are smoking cigars, none of which was considered respectable, feminine behavior at that time.
Citation: “The Age of Brass: Or the Triumphs of Woman's Rights.” lithograph. [New York]: Currier & Ives, 1869. Visual Studies Collection, Library of Virginia.
Preview Activity
Take a Look: Look at the policitcal cartoon. What do you notice about it? What do you think is the purpose? Pay attention to the appearances of the characters and the writing included in the image.
Post Activities
Current Connections: How would this lithograph be different if it were produced today for a women's-rights-related issue? How would the imagery and message change to suit modern times?
Think About It: Identify and list specific imagery in this lithograph that seeks to place women on a more equal playing field with men. To what extent are the images successful?
Illustrated periodicals like Harper's Weekly were popular with Americans in the middle of the 19th century. After southern states formed the Confederate States of America, residents there could not easily receive newspapers and magazines printed in the northern states. The Southern Illustrated News was founded in 1862 in Richmond and remained in print, with some interruptions, until 1865. Illustrated periodicals often included political cartoons, which were popular and provided a visual way to express opinions and concerns. They are often satirical, using humor, exaggeration, irony, and ridicule to persuade a reader to think about current events from a particular point of view.
This political cartoon lampoons Lincoln’s revolving door of United States Army generals who had faced—and been defeated by—Confederate forces in Virginia. After General Winfield Scott retired at the beginning of the Civil War, several generals had been placed at the head of the Army of the Potomac or in charge of armies attempting to secure the Shenandoah Valley. In the cartoon, the “toys” have been stripped of their army general uniforms and located on a shelf with other former generals. Lincoln is shown holding the latest general puppet, Joseph “Fighting Joe” Hooker, who commanded the Army of the Potomac from January to June 1863.
The generals depicted are:
Winfield Scott, who was Commanding General of the United States Army until resigning in November 1861.
Brigadier General Irvin McDowell, who commanded the Army of Northeastern Virginia when it was defeated at the First Battle of Manassas (Bull Run) in 1861.
Major General John C. Fremont, who commanded the Mountain Department and was unable to defeat Confederate General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley Campaign in 1862.
Major General Nathaniel Banks, who was also unable to defeat Confederate General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley Campaign in 1862.
Major General John Pope, who commanded the Army of Virginia at the time of its defeat at the Second Battle of Manassas (Bull Run) in 1862.
Major General George B. McClellan, who commanded the Army of the Potomac during the failed Peninsula Campaign to capture Richmond in 1862.
Major General Ambrose Burnside, who succeeded McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac but was relieved of command after his costly defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg in December 1862.
Major General Joseph Hooker, who took command of the Army of the Potomac in 1863, but was defeated at the Battle of Chancellorsville two months after this cartoon appeared and resigned his post.
Citation: “Master Abraham Lincoln Gets a New Toy,” Southern Illustrated News, 28 May 1863, Richmond, Va.: Ayres & Wade, 1862-1865. Special Collections, Library of Virginia.
Preview Activity
Take a Look: Look at the political cartoon, what do you notice about the image? What does it tell you about the subject of the image?
Post Activities
Analyze: Explain the imagery and title of the cartoon as a tool of criticism. How might this depiction have influenced readers of the paper?
Social Media Spin: Create a social media post in which you create a meme or political cartoon based on the same events for a modern audience.
Another perspective: Write a response to the political cartoon in which Lincoln’s struggle to retain generals is seen in a sympathetic light. Be sure to present your information in a way which would persuade others to support Lincoln.
After the Great Depression, difficult economic times led to an increase in work strikes, such as the one in this image. In an effort to preserve individual employee rights in a town largely controlled by industry, Hopewell plant workers joined labor unions such as District 50 of the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA). The UMWA’s stated purpose was to address the lack of continuity of employment, limited access and ownership in company-owned towns, and extreme occupational hazards. The poor work conditions in Hopewell led to regular strikes and efforts to improve conditions through collective bargaining arrangements. Collective bargaining is the negotiation of wages and other conditions by an organized body of employees.
The post war era saw advances in the labor movement across the United States. Many of the efforts were spurred by the economic hardships of the Great Depression and the U.S. government's response, especially the social programs created as part President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal policies. After the National Labor Relations Act and Social Security Act passed, the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) was formed within the American Federation of Labor (AFL). The Fair Labor Standards Act established a minimum wage and a 40-hour week which changed how business operated nationwide.USII.1, USII.9, VUS.1, VUS.14, GOVT.15, CE.12, CE.13
Preview Activity
Look At It: Look at the photograph. What appears to be happening in the image? What makes you think that?
Post Activities
Current Connection: Virginia is an at will employment state in which the terms of employment may be terminated by either party for any reason, or no reason at all, upon reasonable notice. Although some unions exist in Virginia, they may not have the same power to influence business practices and policies as they do in other states. How might this arrangement impact the choices employees make in being willing to strike? Are there risks in striking? Explain.
Based in New York, N.Y., 1942-1946. Artists for Victory, Inc. was a non-profit organization of more than ten thousand artists was formed to assist in the war effort by using their artistic abilities to inform the public about the war effort and to gain support for the war effort. Their activities included a British-American goodwill exhibition, sponsoring portrait drawings, demonstrations of arts and crafts, and instruction in military hospitals. Often, the art created was used as a form of propaganda using purposefully designed goals and strategies to persuade the American public to back the military fighting in World War II.
In the fall of 1942, Artists for Victory, Council for Democracy, and the Museum of Modern Art sponsored the National War Poster Competition. Artists from 43 states submitted 2,224 designs. The posters portrayed 8 themes selected from the President's first war message to Congress on January 6, 1942, as well as 20 slogans. The eight war themes selected were: Production, War Bonds, The Nature of the Enemy, Loose Talk, Slave World or Free World?, The People are on the March, and Deliver Us From Evil.
Artists for Victory selected 50 images and had them reproduced as war posters which would be distributed around the country. Many of the posters juxtaposed the strength and goodness of the Allies' cause with the tyranny and destruction of the nations that fought against them, the Axis powers of Japan, Italy, and German.
Citation: No. 44 of the First Series of 50 War Poster Labels sponsored by Artists for Victory, Inc. Artist - Clarence West, 1943, Records of the World War II History Commission, Miscellaneous Records, Box 1b, Folder 100, Accession 27544, State Records Collection, Library of Virginia.
Preview Activity
Look at It: Look at the war poster. What message is the artist trying to convey? How does it related to the subject indicated in the text on the poster?
Post Activity
Analyze: The poster is a powerful piece of propaganda art. How do these artistic choices affect the impact of the image as a whole? Would you classify these as propaganda compared to other image campaigns of the time period? Why or why not?
Artistic Exploration: Select one of the themes from the poster collection and create your own entry as if you were part of the 1942 competition.
Up for Debate: Do you think propaganda messaging is something that a government should sponsor? Why or why not? Find other examples of WW II-era imagery to support your position.
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a major event of the Cold War that took place during John F. Kennedy’s presidency. In October 1962, a United States spy plane captured evidence of the Soviet Union (present day Russia) moving nuclear weapons into Cuba which lies 90 miles away from the coast of Florida. Upon hearing this news President Kennedy had to made plans within seven days, in secret, before word of this potential international issue was released to the public. President Kennedy met with his most trusted advisors, including his brother Attorney General Robert Kennedy, to create a plan of action.
President Kennedy announced to the world that they had discovered nuclear missiles were being transported to Cuba. The U.S plan of action was to impose a naval blockade to prevent further shipments to Cuba. While the blockade was successful in stopping additional nuclear weapons from entering Cuba, the missiles already in Cuba were in the beginning stages of becoming operational. President Kennedy seemed to be facing two options: attack or accept the presence of Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba. Kennedy, however, choose to reject both options and proposed a policy that the U.S would not invade Cuba if the Soviet Union removed all nuclear weapons from Cuba. Soviet Union Premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed to this deal, partly due to a secret clause that the United States would also remove U.S missiles from Turkey within six months of the removal of Soviet missiles from Cuba.
Many people feared the world was on the brink of nuclear war, and the now famous "duck and cover" drills became a reality for many Americans during this time period. There was also a booming market for bomb shelters that average citizens could install on their own property. Various government agencies put out reports on how to differentiate between chemical and nuclear attacks. Pamphlets, bulletins, and brochures were also developed about the standards of bomb shelters which would often show schematics and provide information of what nuclear fallout would mean for those who might be impacted by such an event.
Citation: Federal Civil Defense Administration. Civil Defense Technical Bulletin, May 1958, Prints and Photographs, Special Collections, Library of Virginia.
Preview Activity
Scan It: Scan the document and list words or phrases which indicate why it was written and what information it would provide.
Post Activities
Artistic Exploration: Design posters that may have hung in schools and workplaces addressing the issues in this bulletin.
Up for Debate: Do you think this format was the best way to get the message to citizens? How might you have done things differently?