On the morning of September 11, 2001 four flights were hijacked by members of the Islamic extremist group, al- Qaeda, in coordinated attack against the United States. All four hijacked planes were scheduled to be cross-country flights from the East Coast to California. American Airlines Flight 11 (81 passengers, 11 crew, 5 hijackers) and United Airlines Flight 175 (56 passengers, 9 crew, 5 hijackers) left Logan International Airport in Boston, MA bound for Los Angeles. Both flights were hijacked and were crashed into the two towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Flight 11 struck the north tower and Flight 175 struck the south tower. The impact of the planes and extreme damage caused towers to fall within two hours. The Capital Building or the White House were believed to be another target of the attack. United Airlines Flight 93 (37 passengers, 7 crew, 4 hijackers) left Newark International Airport bound for San Francisco and was hijacked over Ohio. Upon hearing of the other attacks, the passengers revolted against the hijackers and the plane was crashed in Shanksville, PA. American Airlines Flight 77 (58 passengers, 6 crew, 5 hijackers) left Washington Dulles International Airport bound for Los Angeles and was crashed into the Pentagon. There was a total of 2,996 victims of the 9/11 attack including the 19 al- Qaeda hijackers.
The Pentagon, located in Arlington, Virginia, is the world's largest low-rise office building and is home to the United States Department of Defense. Construction began in 1941 and was completed by 1943. The photograph shows the damage which resulted from the plane impact on September 11, 2001. Flight 77 crashed into the western side of the Pentagon which caused an intense and ferocious fire. The section of the building struck was the only portion of the Pentagon that had been renovated at that time. The renovations included installing blast-resistant windows, making structural improvements, and adding sprinkler systems. The ongoing renovations meant the area was only half populated which reduced the number casualties on the ground. However, there were still 125 people who lost their lives inside the Pentagon that day.
Following the attacks, the Pentagon Renovation Program, nicknamed the Phoenix Project, set a goal to complete all reconstruction within one year of the attacks. By the first anniversary, the goal was met, offices at the point of impact had been restored, and people were working in those offices. Since the attacks, many memorials have been dedicated to remembering the victims and the first responders who saved many lives, including a memorial erected at the Pentagon which honors the184 lives lost in the attack, those on Flight 77, those who died in the pentagon, and the families of the victims.
Citations: Pentagon—photo courtesy of Edwin C. Bearss
National September 11 Memorial & Museum. FAQ about 9/11. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.911memorial.org/
Vogel, S. The Pentagon. (2011, April 7). In Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved from http://www.EncyclopediaVirginia.org/Pentagon_The.
Preview Activities
Look at It: Look at the photo of the Pentagon on 9/11. Photos of tragic events often invoke feeling in the viewer. How does this photo make you feel? Why?
Post Activities
Analyze: What might have been some reasons that the Pentagon was a target of the 9/11 attacks? Think about what government agencies are found in the Pentagon.
Be the Journalist: You are a journalism student writing a short article on the impacts of 9/11. What fact would you include? How would describe the damage to the Pentagon to individuals who might not have seen the actual event unfold?
STEM STAT: Examine the photo of the Pentagon after the 9/11 attack. From the photo, what can you tell about the plane's angle of entry and the subsequent damage to the building? Be specific.
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a major event of the Cold War that took place during John F. Kennedy’s presidency. In October 1962, a United States spy plane captured evidence of the Soviet Union (present day Russia) moving nuclear weapons into Cuba which lies 90 miles off the coast of Florida. Upon hearing this news, President Kennedy had to made plans within 7 days in secret, before word of this potential international issue was released to the public. President Kennedy met with his most trusted advisors, including his brother Attorney General Robert Kennedy, to create a plan of action.
President Kennedy announced to the world that they had discovered nuclear missiles were being transported to Cuba. The U.S plan of action was to impose a naval blockade to prevent further shipments to Cuba. While the blockade was successful in stopping additional nuclear weapons from entering Cuba, the missiles already in Cuba were in the beginning stages of becoming operational. President Kennedy seemed to be facing two options: attack or accept the presence of Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba. Kennedy, however, choose to reject both options and proposed a policy that the U.S would not invade Cuba, if the Soviet Union removed all nuclear weapons from Cuba. Soviet Union Premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed to this deal, partly due to a secret clause that the United States would also remove U.S missiles from Turkey within 6 months of the removal of Soviet missiles from Cuba.
Citations: Allison, Graham. "The Cuban Missile Crisis at 50." Foreign Affairs 91, no. 4 (July 2012): 11-16. Military & Government Collection, EBSCOhost (accessed November 23, 2015). CIA documents on the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962/ Central Intelligence Agency; editor, Mary S. McAuliffe, Washington D.C, History Staff, Central Intelligence Agency, [1992].Federal Documents Microfiche, Library of Virginia. Richmond, VA
Preview Activity
Scan it: Scan the document. What words and phrases stand out to you? List the words and phrases.
Post Activities
STEM STAT: The map which accompanies the document provides a visual depiction of the reasons why leaving Cuba would have had dangerous consequences. Using the map, list 3 or 4 possible reasons why the Soviet Union would choose to place nuclear arms in Cuba and why the United States needed to ensure that they be permanently removed.
Current Connections: How can studying the Cuban Missile Crisis help policy makers today? Consider policies regarding Iran, North Korea, and China.
The power of the president to pardon those who commit offenses against the United States is enumerated in the Article Two of the U. S. Constitution. A presidential pardon is an executive order granting clemency for a conviction of a crime, with the exception of impeachment cases. Generally, pardons do not imply that the individual is innocent of committing the crime for which they were convicted.
One of the most controversial uses of the presidential pardon occurred when President Andrew Johnson issued sweeping pardons to thousands of former Confederate officials and soldiers after the American Civil War officially ended on April 9, 1865. The final surrender of all Confederate troops occurred on June 2, 1865. President Johnson issued a proclamation on May 29, 1865, extending amnesty to most former Confederate officials and soldiers. Despite the term "amnesty," the move was somewhat punitive on Johnson's part. He wanted to allow most Confederate soldiers to receive amnesty while punishing those who played more important and visible roles in the Confederacy. If a soldier qualified for a pardon, he had to swear a loyalty oath to the United States and free any slaves that he owned. The president included fourteen exception categories to the general pardon. They included soldiers who had attended the United States military and naval academies, former Confederate governors and other officials, high ranking officers, and participants in the rebellion who had property valued at more than $20,000. These individuals could still seek amnesty, but had to file a petition with the President.
Pennsylvania native Edmund M. Bradford was a graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point (1837) who served in the U.S. Army for twelve years following graduation. He married the daughter of a former Virginia governor and settled in Norfolk, where he operated a nearby farm worked by his enslaved laborers. During the Civil War Bradford served as a captain in the Sixth Regiment Virginia Infantry and then as a major of the Virginia Volunteers before later serving in the Confederate Quartermasters Department until the end of the war.
In this document, Edmund Bradford petitioned the president for a pardon on September 3, 1865. As a graduate of West Point who fought for the Confederacy, he did not qualify for the general presidential amnesty. Virginia governor Francis H. Pierpoint (later changed to Pierpont) endorsed the letter and recommended that Bradford receive a pardon. It is unclear from the records available if the president granted Bradford’s pardon request.
Citation: Letter from Edmund Bradford to President Andrew Johnson, September 2, 1865, Tazewell Family Papers, Accession 24194, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.
Preview Activity
Scan It: Scan the document and identify three or four phrases which indicate why Edmund Bradford requested a presidential pardon.
Post Activities
Be the Journalist: You are a reporter covering the story of Edmund Bradford. Write three questions that you would use in an interview with a representative of President Johnson’s administration about the decision to issue presidential pardons.
Current Connections: Presidential pardons have been controversial throughout the history of the United States. Why might they be controversial in the 21st century? If possible, provide an example of a recent controversial presidential pardon.
Social Media Spin: Put yourself in Bradford's shoes. Create a tweet in which you plead your case to the president. Include reasons for why you should receive a pardon.
The American Civil War was fought between 1861 and 1865. The war began after eleven southern states, including Virginia, seceded from the United States in the months after Abraham Lincoln was elected president in November 1860. After four years of war and the Confederacy’s defeat, the slow process of reconstructing the nation began. After President Lincoln's assassination in 1865 the task of reconstruction was placed on President Andrew Johnson.
White leaders of the former Confederate states sought to preserve their control of government, the economy, and society and passed many laws limiting the rights of formerly enslaved men and women. As a result, reformers in Congress passed in 1867 and 1868 what are known as the Reconstruction Acts to help preserve the civil rights of African Americans. The acts created military districts to oversee the civilian governments of those states and required that new state constitutions be written before representatives and senators of those states would be readmitted to Congress. The former Confederate states were also required to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which defined citizenship and the rights of citizens. President Andrew Johnson notably opposed the Reconstruction Acts, believing that they would hamper the autonomy of state governments and stand in the way of a peaceful reconciliation between the states. Despite his vetoes, Congress passed the acts.
Virginia had rejected the Fourteenth Amendment in 1867, but after adopting a new state constitution that acknowledged the rights of Black men to vote and run for office, the General Assembly ratified the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments in October 1869. As a result, Virginia's elected representatives and senators were readmitted to Congress (often described as Virginia being readmitted to the Union). On January 26, 1870, Secretary of State Hamilton Fish wrote this letter to Governor Gilbert Walker, informing him that an act "to admit the state of Virginia to representation in Congress" had passed that day.
Citation: Letter from Secretary of State Fish to Governor Walker, January 26, 1870, Gilbert Walker Executive Papers, Accession 40233, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.
Preview Activity
Using Context Clues: Using context clues found in the document, what is the basis for the document? What event has occurred?
Post Activities
Think About It: List two requirements needed for the former Confederate states to have their representatives admitted to Congress.
Looking at Language: Look at the language of the letter, what does it tell you about the person writing it and the person receiving it? Does the length of the letter surprise you? Why or why not?
The power of the president to pardon those who commit offenses against the United States is enumerated in the Article Two of the U. S. Constitution. A presidential pardon is an executive order granting clemency for a conviction of a crime, with the exception of impeachment cases. Generally, pardons do not imply that the individual is innocent of committing the crime for which they were convicted.
One of the most controversial uses of the presidential pardon occurred when President Andrew Johnson issued sweeping pardons to thousands of former Confederate officials and soldiers after the American Civil War officially ended on April 9, 1865. The final surrender of all Confederate troops occurred on June 2, 1865. President Johnson issued a proclamation on May 29, 1865, extending amnesty to most former Confederate officials and soldiers. Despite the term "amnesty," the move was somewhat punitive on Johnson's part. He wanted to allow most Confederate soldiers to receive amnesty while punishing those who played more important and visible roles in the Confederacy. If a soldier qualified for a pardon, he had to swear a loyalty oath to the United States and free any slaves that he owned. The president included fourteen exception categories to the general pardon. They included soldiers who had attended the United States military and naval academies, former Confederate governors and other officials, high ranking officers, and participants in the rebellion who had property valued at more than $20,000. These individuals could still seek amnesty, but had to file a petition with the President.
John C. Shelton was Stafford County farmer who had owned enslaved laborers at the time of the 1860 census. He was not included in the general amnesty as a result of the thirteenth clause excluding those "persons who have voluntarily participated in said rebellion and the estimated value of whose taxable property is over $20,000." He filed a petition on April 13, 1866, stating that he did not bear arms or hold office in service to the Confederacy. President Johnson issued a pardon to James Shelton on July 5, 1866. The pardon is signed by both President Johnson and Secretary of State William H. Seward.
Citation: Presidential pardon for John Shelton, July 5, 1866, Accession 24593, Shelton Family Papers, Library of Virginia.
Preview Activity
Scan It: Scan the document for any words or phrases which indicate the purpose of the document.
Post Activities
Think About It: List three things you know about presidential pardons. Why are they often considered to be controversial when they are used to pardon large groups of individuals?
State Your Case: You are an attorney representing a former Confederate soldier who would like to make a petition for a presidential pardon. What would you include in the petition? Why?
On April 9, 1865, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House. The surrender effectively ended the American Civil War in Virginia, although fighting continued in other parts of the Confederacy for several months. On April 10, 1865, Grant and Lee met again. At this meeting Grant agreed that Lee’s troops would receive parole passes or slips proving that they were paroled prisoners and were allowed to travel home. Grant also agreed to provide rations for the Confederate troops and to allow soldiers who had provided their own horses to keep them. Paroled soldiers returning home through United States controlled territory were allowed free travel on U.S. government railroads and ships. Some of the parole slips for high ranking Confederate officers were signed by U. S. Army officers, but slips for most Confederate soldiers, like this one, were signed by their commanding officers.
A portable printing press was set up at Appomattox and almost 30,000 parole passes were printed. This parole pass was given to Confederate Captain James M. Garnett (1840–1916). Dated April 10, 1865, it was signed at Appomattox Court House by Confederate Major General Bryan Grimes and countersigned by the U.S. Army's assistant provost marshal Brigadier General George H. Sharpe. James Garnett grew up in Loudoun County, attended the University of Virginia, served as an artillery captain with the Army of Northern Virginia during the Civil War, and later served as president of St. John's College, in Annapolis, Maryland.
Citation: Parole for James M. Garnett, April 10, 1865, James Mercer Garnett Papers, 1861–1865, Accession 20947, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.
Preview Activity
Look at It: Look at the document. What phrases or words stand out to you? What does the date on the document indicate about the period of history in which it was written?
Post Activities
Up for Debate: Take a position on the issue of paroling Confederate officers after the surrender. What arguments would you make to support your position?
Analyze: The surrender at Appomattox Court House served as a model for other agreements concerning the status of former Confederate soldiers. Why do you think part of the surrender agreement included offering parole for those who fought for the Army of Northern Virginia?
The 5-cent Battle of Gettysburg commemorative stamp is the third in a series of five stamps marking the Civil War Centennial from the U.S. Postal Service. Sales of the stamp began at the Gettysburg, Pennsylvania post office on July 1, 1963.
According to this broadside promoting its sale, the stamp was designed by Roy Gjertson of San Pedro, California. He submitted the winning entry in a nationwide competition for professional artists. The stamp depicts a Confederate soldier in a gray field and a Union soldier in a blue field representing the colors of their respective battle uniforms.
Definition: Broadsides were posters, announcing events or proclamations, or simply advertisements.
View and learn more about the stamps from this era from Smithsonian National Postal Museum.
Citation: 5-cent Battle of Gettysburg "Civil War Centennial" commemorative postage stamp, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1963. Broadside 1963 .F5 FF, Manuscripts & Special Collections, Library of Virginia
Preview Activities
Take A Look: Look at the image of the stamp, what do you notice about the image? What does the stamp represent?
Post Activities
Artistic Exploration: Design a commemorative stamp for the centennial of another American War. What symbols and color choices do you feel are important to convey the importance of the event you have chosen?
Social Media Spin: Create a post or tweet for the commemoration of the American Civil War. Including at least one image and provide a description of why you chose that image.
After the American Revolution, relations between the United States and Great Britain remained strained. In its long war with France, Britain imposed a blockade on neutral countries, including the United States, that disrupted shipping and trade. Additionally, the British seized sailors from American ships and impressed them into the British navy. In 1812, Congress approved a declaration of war, and the United States was soon fighting a war with the motto "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights."
The battles ranged throughout the United States and into Canada, with naval battles fought in the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. In Virginia, the British blockaded the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay and raided coastal settlements. In August 1814, the British marched into Washington, D.C., and set fire to the Capitol and the White House. Days later, the city of Alexandria, which had no forces to defend it, surrendered to the British who promised not to destroy the town if the citizens surrendered all naval stores, shipping, and merchandise being exported. In September, the British attempted to capture Baltimore, Maryland, but were repulsed by the American troops at Fort McHenry. The war ended when the Treaty of Ghent was signed on December 24, 1814.
These two engravings by Scottish-born artist William Charles (1776–1820) contrast the resistance—or lack thereof—to the British invasions of Alexandria and Baltimore. As their cities fell under attack, citizens were left with a difficult choice: fight the invaders and risk losing everything, or submit and hope for mercy. In the drawings, the Baltimore militia chooses resistance and surprises John Bull (the symbol of England) with their ability to defend their city. In the other drawing, John Bull forces the Alexandrians, who are depicted as cowards, to forfeit all their goods. The prints were likely intended to be sold together as companion pieces.
Citation: "Johnny Bull and the Alexandrians" and "John Bull and the Baltimoreans," lithographs by William Charles, 1814. Special Collections, Prints & Photographs, Library of Virginia.
Social Studies: GOVT.1 VUS.1
Art: 4.1, 5.1
Preview Activity
Look at It: Look at the caricatures. What do you immediately notice about them? Who do you think the Bull represents? Why?
Post Activities
Analyze: Read the transcriptions for the caricatures. Based on the information, what does the information provided reveal about the repercussions for the decisions made in Alexandria and Baltimore?This portrait of Mary Willing Byrd (1740–1814) was painted early in the 1770s by artist Matthew Pratt. Born in Philadelphia, she was the daughter of a wealthy merchant and a god-daughter of Benjamin Franklin. In 1761 she married William Byrd (1728–1777) while he was serving in the French and Indian War (also known as the Seven Years' War). They settled at his Westover plantation on the James River in Charles City County, where his enslaved laborers raised tobacco and grains. William Byrd was heavily in debt before the American Revolution and he took his own life in January 1777.
The death of her husband left Mary Byrd debt-ridden and faced with the difficult task of satisfying creditors while preserving an inheritance for their ten children. Mary Byrd attempted to remain neutral during the American Revolution and thereby retain control of her property and wealth. Loyalist forces under Benedict Arnold raided Westover in 1781. After trying to negotiate with the British for the return of her property, including 49 enslaved laborers, Mary Byrd was accused by the Americans of trading with the enemy. Mary Byrd eloquently defended herself and a trial was never held. When she wrote her will in 1813, she was still in possession of Westover and was able to provide for all of her children and grandchildren.
Today two portraits of Mary Willing Byrd survive, one located at the Library of Virginia and the other located at the Virginia Museum of History & Culture, in Richmond.
Citation: Mary Willing Byrd, oil painting. Pratt, Matthew, Mary Willing Byrd (Mrs. William Byrd III) Oil painting on canvas, Original. Virginia State Artwork Collection: acquired 1920, Library of Virginia.
Preview Activity
Take a Look: The portrait of Mary Byrd provides many clues to her status and wealth. Write a few sentences about what you believe to be her social status. Use examples from the portrait as part of your explanation.
Post Activity
Artistic Exploration: Produce a portrait of Mary Willing Byrd that you think represents her story. You may create the portrait using any artistic means you wish. Feel free to use symbols in your portrait to represent her status and struggle.
Another Perspective: If you were Mary Byrd, how might you try to preserve your property? Would you choose a side in the war? Would you stay neutral? What would influence your decision.
By 1775, approximately half a million enslaved Americans were living in the thirteen colonies. During the American Revolution, thousands of Black Americans participated. Some joined the British, while others fought with the Americans depending on who they believed offered the best path to freedom. Virginia's royal governor, Lord Dunmore, promised to free any slaves who abandoned their Patriot owners to fight for the king. Hundreds joined him and thousands more enslaved men and women fled to British lines and were eventually sent to Canada or other locations.
When Virginia began drafting soldiers in 1777 to fill its quotas for the Continental Army, free Black men were included. Some owners of slaves also provided an enslaved man as their substitute in the army, although the Virginia legislature technically forbade enslaved men from serving. Hundreds of Black soldiers were part of the Continental Army during the brutal winter at Valley Forge in 1777–1778, including dozens in the Virginia Line. Over the course of the war, thousands of Black men, including Nansemond County farmer James Bowser, fought for American independence, although those who had been enslaved did not all gain freedom as a result.
In 1783, Virginia's General Assembly acknowledged that owners of some enslaved soldiers had attempted to "force them to return to a state of servitude, contrary to the principles of justice" and despite promises of freedom. The assembly passed a law "Directing the Emancipation of Certain Slaves who have Served as Soldiers in this State." It authorized that any enslaved man who had enlisted at the request of his owner or who had served as a substitute for his owner and fulfilled the terms of his service was to be freed. It is not known how many men actually received their freedom as a result of this act.
Preview Activity
Scan It: Scan the document. What is the purpose of this law? Why is this significant?
Post Activities
Think About It: Why would the Patriots be reluctant to allow enslaved people to join their army? Why would the British offer freedom to enslaved people?