1
10
68
-
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Development of the Industrial United States
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1870-1900
Description
An account of the resource
From Reconstruction to the end of the 19th century, the United States went through a dramatic shift in its economic landscape. Industrialization changed not only the nature of business, but also brought technological advances and demand for an ever-increasing workforce. A rapid expansion of the power of big business was countered with the rise of labor movements, and often resulted in conflict, sometimes violent in nature. In contrast to the positive outcomes of technological developments, there were ecological effects not understood at the time, and unhealthy working conditions that often sparked labor disputes and strikes. This shift was felt not only in the industrial big cities of the North and Midwest, but also in the realm of farming, where the United States was now put into the role of the world’s premier food producer. <br /><br />This era is defined largely by migration of African Americans from the South to the Midwest and North; immigration to the U.S. from other countries; and growing urbanization, all of which fed the industrial system. The rapid influx of Black southerners heightened racial tensions as they fought for equality and opportunity. Immigrants, for the first time, were less likely to come from Western Europe, but rather from Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia, Mexico, and Central America. Along with the need for expanding educational systems, which were often structured to push assimilation, the rise in immigration also led to religious tensions as Protestantism was no longer the dominating faith of those immigrating to the United States.<br /><br />Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>.
Lesson Plan
A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction.
Context
<p>This broadside advertises an excursion by train from Lawrenceville to Norfolk as a fundraiser for St. Paul Normal and Industrial Institute. James Solomon Russell (1857–1935) founded St. Paul Normal and Industrial School in Lawrenceville to serve the African American community in the surrounding area. He had been born into slavery in Mecklenburg County. After the Civil War and emancipation, he attended Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute and became a teacher before he studied the ministry and was ordained an Episcopal priest. Russell organized St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Lawrenceville and began a primary school there in 1883.</p>
<p>There was no high school for Black students in the area, and in 1888 Russell opened St. Paul Normal and Industrial School. Its three-year curriculum included such subjects as U.S. history, literature, composition, geography, and physics. It also offered industrial training classes in such skills as blacksmithing, shoemaking, farming, dressmaking, and cooking. Booker T. Washington, president of Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, visited St. Paul's and commended the school and Russell for his efforts. Russell traveled around the country to raise money for St. Paul's, which added a teacher training department and a junior college before he retired in 1929. Students came from more than 20 states and from the Caribbean and Africa. It became St. Paul's College in 1957 and continued operating until 2013.</p>
<p>Broadsides are single sheets of paper with printed matter intended to be distributed in public. They could be posters announcing events or proclamations, advertisements, or a written argument (often describing political views).</p>
<p><em>Citation: Ho! Ho! Here We Go: The Grandest Excursion of the Season from LaCrosse to Norfolk and Return, Friday, Sept. 6th, 1895, Broadside Digital Collection, Library of Virginia.</em></p>
<span style="text-decoration:underline;"><a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/russell-james-solomon-1857-1935/" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about James Solomon Russell in his Dictionary of Virginia Biography entry online at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a></span>
Standards
VS.1, VS.8, USII.1, USII.4, VUS.1, VUS.8
Suggested Questions
<p><strong>Preview Activity </strong></p>
<p>Scan It: Scan the document to assess its meaning and look for key words.</p>
<p><strong>Post Activities </strong></p>
<p>Be The Journalist: Imagine you are interviewing James Solomon Russell. What four questions would you ask? Why? Consider the legacy of Russell’s life, from being born enslaved to being ordained a priest and founding a successful college at the beginning of the Jim Crow era.</p>
<p>Map It: How many of the destinations listed on the broadside can you find on a current map of Virginia?</p>
<p>Dig Deeper: Using the <em>Brunswick Times</em> and the <em>Brunswick Times-Gazette</em> <a href="https://virginiachronicle.com/?a=q&e"><span style="text-decoration:underline;">online in Virginia Chronicle</span></a>, search for information about James S. Russell and St. Paul Normal and Industrial Institute. Write a paragraph about Russell and the school and include three facts that you learned.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
James S. Russell and St. Paul Normal and Industrial Institute, Broadside, 1895
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1895
African American History
-
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Expansion and Reform
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1800-1860
Description
An account of the resource
Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. <br /><br />Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms.<br /><br />Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>.
Lesson Plan
A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction.
Context
Virginia's economy was based on slavery until the Civil War and emancipation. Farmers and planters relied on enslaved laborers to work their land. Many businesses, including railroads, coal mines, tobacco factories, and saltworks, also exploited enslaved laborers. Urban residents relied on enslaved men and women to cook, clean, and care for their households. White Virginians who did not own slaves sometimes hired enslaved laborers from their owners to work for them. <br /><br />An unknown number of enslaved people attempted to escape from the harsh conditions of slavery, and Virginia's General Assembly passed numerous laws to hinder escapes and to require the return of escaped slaves to their owners. A 1705 act offered rewards for the capture of escaped slaves, punished them by whipping, and punished local officials who allowed an enslaved person to escape. If the owner of an escaped slave could not be found, later laws authorized jailers to hire out the enslaved person with an "iron collar" around their neck and to sell them at public auction. <br /><br />This record was created in Kanawha County (now part of West Virginia) in 1834 and filed in the county court in 1835. William Albright was one of three escaped slaves who were being held at the county jail. The county appointed commissioners to assess the value of the enslaved people in order to recover the costs the county paid to confine them in jail. William Albright was valued at $50, which was considered insufficient to pay for his confinement. By order of the court, the sheriff sold William Albright at the courthouse door in September 1834. What happened to him afterwards is unknown. Records such as these illustrate some of the dangers faced by enslaved men and women who tried to free themselves by escaping. <br /><br /><em>Citation: William Albright Etc., Runaway Slave Record, Kanawha County [West Virginia], 1835, Library of Virginia.</em><br /><br /><a href="https://virginiamemory.com/collections/aan/aan_record_types.pdf?v=3.0" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span style="text-decoration:underline;">Learn more about the Library's collection of Runaway Slaves Records here (p. 15–16).</span></a> <br /><br /><a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/runaway-slaves-2/" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span style="text-decoration:underline;">Listen to historian Tom Costa discuss the punishments faced by runaway slaves in this excerpt (3:10 min) from <em>With Good Reason</em> online at Encyclopedia Virginia.</span></a>
Standards
VUS.1, VUS.2
Suggested Questions
<strong>Preview Activity<br /></strong> <br />Analyze: Create a hypothesis about the purpose of this document. <br /><br /><strong>Post-Activities</strong> <br /><br />Form an Opinion: After reading this document, form an opinion about what transpired. What do you base your opinion on? Explain using at least two examples from the document. <br /><br />Think About It: What are three things you learned about William Albright from this document? <br /><br />Another Perspective: Imagine you are an abolitionist opposed to slavery. How might you use this document to support your position?
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
William Albright, Runaway Slave Record, Kanawha County, 1834
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1834
African American History
-
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Expansion and Reform
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1800-1860
Description
An account of the resource
Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. <br /><br />Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms.<br /><br />Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>.
Lesson Plan
A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction.
Context
Commonwealth causes are criminal cases filed by a county's prosecuting attorney (commonwealth's attorney) against individuals who violate Virginia law. Prior to the abolition of slavery in Virginia in 1865, criminal offenders and victims included both free and enslaved persons. Punishment was often based on race and social status, with enslaved and free African Americans receiving harsher punishments than white offenders. Free Black men and women could be sold into slavery as punishment for a crime, which was never the case for white men or women convicted of a crime.<br /><br />In this commonwealth cause, the Accomack County court summoned a free Black woman named Phillis (no surname recorded) to face the charge that she had remained in Virginia for more than a year after she had been emancipated. An 1806 law passed by Virginia's General Assembly required people who had been freed from slavery after that date to leave the state within twelve months or face re-enslavement. The law was one of several intended to address concerns of white Virginians who feared that the presence of too many free Black people would incite enslaved men and women to violence.<br /><br />Phillis had been enslaved by a woman named Mary Outten, who had freed Phillis and several other enslaved people at the time of her death on October 28, 1822. Phillis was one of more than forty other freed men and women who lived in Accomack County who were summoned to the county court between 1823 and 1825 after a grand jury presented an indictment that allowing "free negroes" to remain in the county in spite of the 1806 law was "a public evil." A grand jury presented (or indicted) Phillis on March 29, 1824, for remaining in Virginia. It is not clear whether Phillis ever appeared in court. In April 1825 the county discontinued the prosecution against Phillis and the other free men and women who had been criminally charged. What happened to her afterwards is not known. <br /><br /><em>Citation: Selected pages from Phillis [by Outten], 1824, and Phillis Outten, 1824, Commonwealth Causes, Accomack County Commonwealth Causes, 1815–1863, Library of Virginia.</em><br /><br />Vocabulary<br />Summons – issued by a court to call a suspected person, witness, or victim to appear in court to provide evidence<br /><br />Indictment – official, written description of the crime that an accused individual is suspected of committing, which is approved by a grand jury and presented to a court in an order also known as “presentments.”
Standards
VUS.1, VUS.2
Suggested Questions
<strong>Preview Activity<br /></strong> <br />Scan It: Scan the documents to look for phrases or words that stand out. What do they tell you about the documents? <br /><br /><strong>Post-Activities<br /></strong><br />Be the Journalist: You are a journalist interviewing Phillis. What are three questions you would ask her? <br /><br />Think About It: Why might Virginia law have required freed people to leave the state? How could this law have affected emancipated people and their families, members of whom might remain in slavery?
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Phillis, Commonwealth Cause, Accomack County, 1824
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1824
African American History
Women's History
-
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9d746ed168a42313531874c1b730051f
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Postwar United States
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1945 - 1970s
Description
An account of the resource
The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. <br /><br />The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. <br /><br />Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>
Lesson Plan
A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction.
Context
<p>On May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in <em>Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas </em>that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. Virginia's school system had been segregated since it was established in 1870, and had been protected by the Supreme Court's 1896 decision in <em>Plessy v. Ferguson </em>that segregation did not violate an individual's equal protection under the law as guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. For decades the doctrine of "separate but equal" enabled Virginia and other southern states to prevent African Americans from experiencing full equality under the law. In the unanimous <em>Brown v. Board </em>ruling, Chief Justice Earl Warren described segregated schools as "inherently unequal." </p>
<p>The announcement of the Supreme Court’s decision brought about many reactions from the people of Virginia. There were those who responded with great joy, seeing this as a hard won victory for African Americans and elicited a sense of hope for full equality for all citizens. For others the Court's decision brought about a sense of fear and uncertainty. </p>
<p>Newspaper editors reflected these varied reactions. In the <em>Journal and Guide</em>, Norfolk's African American weekly newspaper, P. B. Young described the <em>Brown </em>decision as "a great victory" that affirmed the "unconstitutionality of racial discrimination" in America. Segregationist James J. Kilpatrick, editor of the <em>Richmond News Leader</em>, acknowledged that white Virginians would have to accept the ruling in some form, but stressed that "this is no time for a weak surrender" of the state's right to control its public schools.<br /><br /><em>Citations: P. B. Young, "Time for Wise, Prudent Action," Norfolk Journal and Guide, May 22, 1954, p. 1, and James J. Kilpatrick, "The Decision," Richmond News Leader, May 18, 1954, p. 10.</em><br /><br /></p>
Standards
USII. 1, USII. 9, CE.1, CE. 10, VUS.1, VUS.13, VUS. 14, GOVT. 1, GOVT. 3, GOVT. 8
Suggested Questions
<strong>Preview Activity</strong><br /><br />Scan It: Scan the two editorials. What words or phrases stand out to you in each? Explain why.<br /><br /><br /><strong>Post Activities<br /></strong><br />Looking at Language: Look at the language used in both editorials. What does it tell you about the person writing each of the editorials? What does it tell you about the audience of the editorials?<br /><br />Form an Opinion: After reading the two editorials, form an opinion about why the reactions to the <em>Brown v Board of Education</em> decision differ? Use evidence from each article to support your opinion.<br /><br />Dig Deeper: Using the Library of Virginia's online newspaper database, <a href="https://virginiachronicle.com/" target="_blank" title="This link opens in a new window." rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Chronicle</a>, look at other newspapers in the days after the Supreme Court decision. How did editors respond in other parts of the state?
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Two Virginia Newspapers Respond to the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education Decision, May 1954
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1954
African American History
-
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Postwar United States
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1945 - 1970s
Description
An account of the resource
The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. <br /><br />The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. <br /><br />Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>
Lesson Plan
A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction.
Context
<p>In 1896 the United States Supreme Court ruled in <em>Plessy v. Ferguson </em>that racial segregation did not violate the "equal protection of the laws" clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Virginia and other southern states employed the doctrine of "separate but equal" to enforce segregation in public places, including schools. However, white Virginians did not ensure that schools for African Americans were equal to those attended by white students, and as a result Black students received an inferior education to that of whites. On May 17, 1954 the United States Supreme Court ruled in <em>Brown v Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas</em> that segregation in schools violated the Fourteenth Amendment and was therefore unconstitutional. </p>
<p>Initially Governor Thomas B. Stanley reacted cautiously to the Supreme Court's ruling, and spoke of his plan to meet with white and Black leaders to determine how to carry out integration in Virginia's schools. However, he succumbed to pressure to resist school integration from U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, white community organizations such as the Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties, and <em>Richmond News Leader </em>editor James J. Kilpatrick, who publicly argued that the state had a right to "interpose" itself between its citizens and the enforcement of federal laws including Supreme Court decisions. </p>
<p>On August 27, 1956, Stanley spoke to a special session of the General Assembly. He urged the assembly members to pass legislation that would prevent schools in Virginia from integrating and to include provisions that would remove state funding from any school or school system that attempted to integrate. In this excerpt from his address, Governor Stanley claimed that the responses he received from Virginians from all walks of life unanimously supported the idea that integration should be prevented. However, Virginians who supported integration also wrote to the governor between 1954 and 1956. This group of selected letters to Stanley represent the many voices that were left unheard in his speech.<br /><br />The General Assembly passed a law that denied state funding to any public schools where Black and white students were taught in the same classroom. Virginia's policy of Massive Resistance resulted in the closure of some public schools that attempted to desegregate. For more than a decade school integration proceeded slowly in Virginia, and some districts ignored court orders until a 1968 Supreme Court ruling required localities to demonstrate actual progress in desegregating their schools.<br /><br /></p>
<p><em>Citations: </em><br /><em>Governor Thomas B. Stanley Speech Before a Special Session of the Virginia General Assembly, 27 August 1956 (WRVA-160), WRVA Radio Collection, Accession 38210, Library of Virginia. </em>Excerpt is 4 minutes long.</p>
<p><em>Letters in Governor Thomas B. Stanley Executive Papers, Accession 25184, Box 110 (Integration folders, 1954, 1955, 1956), State Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia.<br /><br /><br /></em>Related entries:<br /><a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/207"><span>Governor Stanley's Address to Virginians after the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education Decision, May 17, 1954</span></a></p>
Standards
USII. 1, USII. 9, CE.1, CE. 7, CE. 10, VUS.1, VUS.13, GOVT. 1, GOVT. 3, GOVT. 8, GOVT. 9
Suggested Questions
<p><strong>Preview Activity</strong></p>
<p>Think About it: In 1896 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that separating the races did not violate the rights of individuals to equal protection under the law established in the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. As a result of this ruling the "separate but equal" doctrine was established.</p>
<p>What do you think? Do you agree with the Court's ruling in 1896? Explain.</p>
<p><br /><strong>Post Activities</strong></p>
<p>Listen to the Language: Listen to the language of Governor Stanley’s address to the General Assembly on August 26, 1956. What is he arguing? What is he asking the legislators to do? What support is he claiming to have from the people of Virginia in regards to his requests? Whose voices are you not hearing in his speech?</p>
<p>Take a Stand: Read the letters from the citizens whose voices are not represented in Governor Stanley’s address to the Virginia Assembly. You have been chosen to represent these people, whose voices have been ignored, before the General Assembly. Create an address that you would deliver to the General Assembly representing the positions of the people who wrote these letters. Use evidence from the letters to support the arguments you present in your address</p>
<p>Food for Thought: Why do you think Governor Stanley chose not to mention the letters he received supporting school integration when he addressed the General Assembly in 1956?</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Governor Stanley's Address to the General Assembly, August 27, 1956, and the Voices Not Heard
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1956
African American History
Government and Civics
-
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Description
An account of the resource
Beyond the toll it took on the nation, the Great Depression helped to shape modern-day America, especially in expanding the role of government in citizens' everyday lives. The circumstances of the Depression spurred President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal initiatives that included the Works Progress Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Farm Security Administration, and the Social Security Administration to assist the unemployed, farmers, and the elderly.<br /><br />World War II helped not only to bring the nation out of the Depression, but also put the United States on the world stage as a superpower. Unlike previous administrations, both Roosevelt and President Harry S. Truman placed the United States on a path to leadership in worldwide conflicts and reform movements. The war changed the role of women as they entered the workforce while American men went to war. Events such as the bombing at Pearl Harbor, liberation of concentration camps, the use of atomic bombs, and the rise of the Soviet Union as a superpower shaped future American foreign policy.<br /><br />Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>
Title
A name given to the resource
The Great Depression and World War II
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1929 - 1945
Lesson Plan
A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction.
Context
<p>The contributions of African Americans to the politics, life, and culture of the Commonwealth of Virginia have often been ignored in traditional histories and textbooks. Historian Luther Porter Jackson (1892–1950), however, researched and wrote numerous books, newspaper columns, and articles detailing what could be called a “hidden” history of Black Virginians. Beginning in the 1920s, he promoted the annual Negro History Week in Virginia, the precursor to today's Black History Month. For years, scholars and historians have turned to Jackson’s work for reliable and well-documented information that challenged racist stereotypes about Black Virginians in American history.</p>
<p>A history professor and chair of the History Department at Virginia State University, Jackson had degrees from Fisk University, Columbia University, and a doctorate from the University of Chicago. Throughout his career he made extensive use of primary source materials in local courthouses and in state and national archives, including birth, marriage, and death records, tax records, property deeds, legal and court records, military records, and other government documents. He also researched in newspapers and family papers, and he interviewed family descendants to carefully document the life and work of Black Virginians. Some of his most significant works include:</p>
<ul><li><em>Free Negro Labor and Property Holding in Virginia 1830–1860 </em>(1942), which showed the rise of property ownership among Virginia’s free Black men and women before the Civil War.</li>
<li><em>Virginia Negro Soldiers and Seamen in the American Revolution </em>(1944), which documented the service almost 200 Black Virginians who served in the army and navy during the Revolutionary War.</li>
<li><em>Negro Office-Holders in Virginia 1865–1895</em> (1945, 1946), which provided biographical information about the Black men who served in the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1867–1868, as delegates and senators in the General Assembly from 1869 to 1891, and some local office holders of the late-19th century. For many years Jackson's work was often the only source documenting their election to public office.</li>
</ul><p>Beyond his teaching and research, Luther P. Jackson was active in advancing civil rights. He wrote a weekly newspaper column for the Norfolk <em>Journal and Guide</em> during the 1940s on “Rights and Duties In a Democracy.” In it, he regularly advocated registering to vote and voting as well as using the courts to fight segregation laws. He also shared inspirational examples of Black Virginians in history. In this column, published on August 21, 1943, Jackson describes the participation of Black soldiers and sailors in the American Revolution, including William Flora, at the Battle of Great Bridge, and James Lafayette, who spied on the British at Yorktown. He wanted his readers to understand that the Black Virginians then serving in Europe and the Pacific during World War II were part of a long tradition of fighting "for liberty and democracy" in American history.</p>
<p><em>Citation: Luther P. Jackson, Virginia Negro Solders and Seamen in the American Revolution," Norfolk Journal and Guide, 21 August 1943.</em></p>
<p>Related Entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/277">Petition of James Lafayette, New Kent County, 1786.</a></p>
Standards
VS.1, VS.5, VUS.1, VUS.8
Suggested Questions
<strong>Preview Activity</strong> <br /><br />Think about it: You are a member of numerous communities in your school, neighborhood, with your friends, relatives, and in your social media connections and online groups. Think about “hidden histories” in any of those communities; what are they and what kind of research and/or facts would you like to be publicized? <br /><br /><strong>Post Activities</strong> <br /><br />Think about it: L. P. Jackson wrote about the service of Black Virginians during the American Revolution and copies of <em>Virginia Negro Soldiers and Seamen of the American Revolution</em> were sent to African American teachers in Virginia's public schools. Why might L. P. Jackson have done this? Consider the time period when the book was published. <br /><br />Look at it: Examining the titles of L. P. Jackson’s books, what topic or topics might interest you as a project for this year’s Black History month? Briefly explain or add your own topic or topics. <br /><br />Analyze: The famed African American historian G. Carter Woodson was a contemporary of Luther Porter Jackson and is today well known as a researcher and activist. Briefly research Woodson’s life and work <a href="in%20the%20Norfolk%20Journal%20and%20Guide," target="_blank" title="This non-LVA link will open in a new window." rel="noreferrer noopener">(see his online biography at Encyclopedia Virginia</a>): what do you see as connections to or commonalities with Jackson?
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Luther Porter Jackson—Highlighting Black History
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1943
African American History
-
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6a262b4e8d1e62bad3906f290f6b0a9a
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e64f3a9518fc77b3d5633807c8ad33ae
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Expansion and Reform
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1800-1860
Description
An account of the resource
Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. <br /><br />Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms.<br /><br />Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>.
Lesson Plan
A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction.
Context
Beginning in the 18th century, cemeteries in Richmond were racially segregated. Deceased residents of African descent were interred in the Burial Ground for Negroes (also known as the African Burial Ground) alongside the city’s Shockoe Creek. The burial ground was largely untended, prone to flooding, and adjacent to slaughterhouses. After Nat Turner's Rebellion in 1831, the General Assembly forbade enslaved and free Black Virginians from assembling in groups. Because they could not gather to perform burial ceremonies, free Black residents of Richmond protested in 1834 that “many coloured human beings are interred like brutes” in an unsuccessful petition for permission to gather for funerals if they obtained a license from a white minister.<br /><br />In the 19th century, Black residents of Richmond sought to establish their own cemeteries in more favorable locations. Gilbert Hunt (ca. 1780–1863) and other free African Americans established the Union Burial Ground Society in 1846. The Society adopted this formal constitution in 1848. The members cited “a deep interest in the welfare of our race,” and announced that for $10 any free person could purchase a section of the cemetery “with a right to inter any person he may think proper.” The new burial ground was just north of Richmond, and is today part of Barton Heights Cemeteries.<br /><br />Gilbert Hunt’s interest in this civic improvement for his community is characteristic. Trained as a blacksmith, he purchased his freedom in 1829, and for a brief time lived in the West African colony of Liberia. He soon returned to Richmond, however, and was well known and revered as an outspoken community leader and deacon of the First African Baptist Church. Hunt was also honored as a local hero for having saved numerous lives during two deadly fires, one at Christmas in 1811 at the Richmond Theatre and one in 1823 at the Virginia State Penitentiary.<br /><br /><em>Citation: Union Burial Ground Constitution, 1848, Accession 22514a, Organization Records Collection, Library of Virginia.</em>
Standards
VS.1, USI.1, VUS.1, VUS.6
Suggested Questions
<strong>Preview Activities</strong> <br /><br />Look at it: The Union Burial Ground Society Constitution lists 16 rules, many of which detail bureaucratic procedures. How is rule VI different, and why might it have been important to this group? <br /><br />Look at it: What is the significance of rule XIII? <br /><br />Look at it: Who do you assume are the “strangers” mentioned in rule XV, and why would the Union Burial Ground Society Constitution include them? <br /><br /><strong>Post Activity </strong><br /><br />Be the Journalist: You are a journalist preparing to interview Gilbert Hunt and other members of the Union Burial Ground Society. What are the three most important questions you would ask? Why are they important?
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Union Burial Ground Society Constitution, 1848
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1848
African American History
-
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2aba0d5cfc753b86ef7aeb149bb6653a
https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/2db70d0c9669d99bf4667fd73d9f249e.pdf
e70828010b9503f613dc338c81cf9db1
https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/a0eea133af1850a63e60b584d8ed658d.pdf
9c5bc3ccac6395df5a1c518a85d033bb
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Expansion and Reform
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1800-1860
Description
An account of the resource
Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. <br /><br />Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms.<br /><br />Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>.
Lesson Plan
A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction.
Context
<p>In 1806, Virginia's General Assembly passed a law that required enslaved people who had been freed after that date to leave the state within one year's time. Those who remained in the Commonwealth more than a year could be re-enslaved and sold. Often, however, the law did not always operate to full effect. Some people petitioned the General Assembly to remain in Virginia, some received permission from the local court where they lived, and sometimes the local community simply looked the other way.</p>
<p>Clara Robinson was 60 years old when she petitioned the General Assembly in 1848. She asked to remain in Richmond after she was emancipated by Elizabeth Gibson. Clara Robinson was an established and successful midwife, who had been trained to assist women in childbirth. Richmond lawyer James A. Seddon and several prominent white physicians who had relied on her services signed a statement supporting her request. The House of Delegates referred the petition to the committee on the Courts of Justice, which recommended approving her petition. The bill allowing her to remain failed in the state senate, but it was introduced again in the next session and was approved in March 1850. There is no further information about Clara Robinson afterwards.<br /><br />Petitions to the General Assembly were the primary catalyst for legislation in the Commonwealth from 1776 until 1865. Public improvements, military claims, divorce, manumission of slaves, division of counties, incorporation of towns, religious freedom, and taxation were just some of the concerns expressed in these petitions. <span style="text-decoration:underline;"><a href="https://lva-virginia.libguides.com/petitions" target="_blank" title="this link opens in a new window" rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about legislative petitions and search for other examples here</a></span>.<br /><br /><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><a href="https://uncommonwealth.virginiamemory.com/blog/2017/02/15/virginia-untold-petitions-to-remain/" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about petitions to remain in The UncommonWealth blog.</a></span></p>
<br /><em>Citation: Petition, Clara Robinson, December 20, 1848, Henrico County, Legislative Petitions of the </em><em>General Assembly, 1776-1865, Accession 36121, Library of Virginia.</em>
Standards
Social Studies: VS1, USI.1, USI.8, VUS.6
Suggested Questions
<strong>Preview Activity</strong><br />Scan It: Scan the transcript of the document. What information does it provide about the basis for the petition? <br /><br /><strong>Post Activities </strong><br />Think About It: Why would Virginia law require freed people to leave the state? How might this law have affected emancipated people and their families, members of whom might remain in slavery?<br /><br />Another Perspective: What is significant about Clara Robinson’s petition? What made her situation unique?
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Clara Robinson, Petition to Remain in Virginia, 1848
African American History
Women's History
-
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a261aa7b6ef4ef50e1074d5a76dd883f
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caba6437d68913dec365a5a3e7ba198d
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Revolution and the New Nation
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1754-1820s
Description
An account of the resource
The American Revolution is considered one of the most crucial times of United States history to study, as it lays the groundwork for all political history following it. Not only did it end the colonial relationship with England, but it brought about political change that shaped our lives and served as an example for other nations. It also called into question social and political relationships, raising questions regarding freedom and inalienable rights. Some of America’s most important documents and greatest political minds come from this era. The war itself also was revolutionary, with successful guerilla-style fighting and the defeat by colonials of well-trained British military forces. <br /><br />Following the war, the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the process of ratification shifted not only the style of government, but also the way in which governments functioned with an increased public investment. This process also called into question the balance of power between federal and state governments, an issue that continued to be present in American politics long after the Constitution and the Bill of Rights were completed. Despite strong unity among many in during the American Revolution, political, economic, regional, social, ideological, and religious tensions did not fade, and in some cases---especially with respect to slavery---increased as the United States sought to define itself.<br /><br />Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>.
Lesson Plan
A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction.
Context
<p><span style="font-weight:400;">James Lafeyette was born enslaved about 1748. He lived on a plantation owned by William Armistead in New Kent County. Although he is sometimes identified as James Armistead, he never signed his name or self-identified as having the surname Armistead. During the American Revolution, he received permission from William Armistead to serve as a spy under the Marquis de Lafayette, who was then in command of the Continental army in Virginia. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight:400;">As a spy, James had unique knowledge of the region and the ability to blend in, which allowed him to acquire information about the plans of the British Army that he passed on to the Continental army. He posed as a double agent and pretended to spy on the Americans for the British. Instead he smuggled papers out of Cornwallis’s headquarters and also carried "secret & important" messages from Lafayette to other agents behind the enemy’s lines, which could have led to his execution if he had been caught. For all his brave actions during the war, James returned to life as an enslaved person. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight:400;">In this 1786 petition to the General Assembly, James asks for his freedom based on his service to his country during the Revolution. The General Assembly had denied his previous petition in 1784, but this time the Assembly granted his request and passed an act emancipating James, who then took the surname Lafayette to honor the former French General. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight:400;">James Lafayette moved to his own 40-acre farm in New Kent, where he married and raised a family. In 1818, at the age of 70, he successfully petitioned the General Assembly for a pension. When the Marquis de Lafayette toured the United States in 1824, he saw James in a crowd and embraced him as an old friend. James Lafayette died in 1832.<br /><i><br />Citation: Petition of James, New Kent County, November 30, 1786, Legislative Petitions Digital Collection, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Va.</i><br /><br /></span></p>
<a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/lafayette-james-ca-1748-1830/" target="_blank" title="This non-LVA link will open in a new window." rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about James Lafayette in his Dictionary of Virginia Biography entry at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a>
Standards
<p><span style="font-weight:400;">VS.4, VS.5, US1.5, US1.6, VUS.4, VUS.5</span></p>
Suggested Questions
<p><strong>Preview Activity</strong></p>
<p><span style="font-weight:400;">Scan It: Scan the petition. What names, words, or phrases stand out to you? List four or five. </span></p>
<p><strong>Post Activities</strong></p>
<p><span style="font-weight:400;">Think About it: While still enslaved James asked for permission to enlist to serve in the American Revolution. Why might he have made this choice? What potential benefits might have contributed to his choice? </span><span style="font-weight:400;"> </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight:400;">Social Media Spin: Create a social media post on the anniversary of the date James Lafayette received his emancipation. Be sure to include relevant information which would help people understand his importance in American history. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-weight:400;">Be a Journalist: Imagine you are interviewing James Lafayette before his death in 1832. What questions would you ask? Why would you ask those questions? Explain. </span></p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
James Lafayette Petition for Freedom, 1786
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1786
African American History
Military History
-
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f7d1f43760cc2f0e17affcb065568f41
https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/files/original/f62c58a5b5b6ee88eb3cb8d25a017317.pdf
aa965acbfd66a683ff75051c03c97c95
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Emergence of Modern America
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1890-1930
Description
An account of the resource
<p>The idea of a “Modern United States” begins with the advent of the Progressive era. The Progressive movement focused on reforms viewed as necessary after drastic increases in industrialization, immigration, and urbanization, as well as corruption in the business and political realms. Temperance reached its peak with the 18th Amendment and the decade of Prohibition, while woman suffrage became guaranteed nationally with the 19th Amendment. Other movements that gained traction on a new scale during this era were the labor movement, including the rise of unions, and the Harlem Renaissance. Shifting roles for African Americans migrating to northern cities and unprecendented immigration to America's shores heightened racial and ethnic tensions and led to the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan.</p>
<p>With all of the changes on the home front of America, this era also saw the emergence of the United States as a major world power. The Spanish-American War pitted the U.S. against a European power other than Great Britain for the first time. Not long after, the United States found itself embroiled in World War I, despite strong isolationist tendencies. Along with a large death toll, World War I led to the development of the failed League of Nations, ultimately pushing the United States even further into an isolationist standing that would last for decades. The immediate postwar period of the Prohibition-era “Roaring 20s” saw a domination in politics and economics by big business and its supporters, which would all come crashing down in less than a decade.</p>
<p>Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>.</p>
Lesson Plan
A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction.
Context
<p>Richmond's former city hall building, known as Old City Hall, is located on Broad Steet with one side facing Capitol Square and another facing the current city hall building. The building stands out as a remnant of the Gothic Revival style popular early in the 20th century. It featured intricately carved granite façades, grand staircases, and large atriums with skylights. Elijah E. Myers won a national competition in 1886 to design Richmond's city hall. He had previously designed the capital buildings of Michigan, Colorado, Idaho, Texas, and Utah. After the building was constructed for an amount exceeding Myers’s original bid, it was found that he had resorted to bribery to ensure that his design had been selected. </p>
<p>Its site was the location of the previous city hall, built in 1818 by Robert Mills, one of the first American-born professional architects. It had been demolished in 1874 after being found structurally unsound following several changes to the building. </p>
<p>Construction began on the new city hall in 1886. The granite was obtained from nearby quarries on the banks of the James River. When the city council attempted to employ contract workers from out of state to save money, the Knights of Labor and other local union members organized a political campaign that resulted in the election of white and Black council members on a "Workingmen's Reform Ticket." The city council agreed that construction would be performed primarily by local workers, including skilled craftsmen such as iron workers and stonemasons. Although Black laborers were employed in city hall's construction, skilled Black craftsmen were excluded. </p>
<p>The costs of building such a large and intricate structure went well above the $300,000 budget. In 1894, eight years after construction began, it was completed with an astounding $1.3 million price tag. The finished building had four uniquely carved towers, including a clock tower. Despite the imposing thick exterior walls, the interior of the building is centered on a large courtyard with a skylight ceiling and a gallery of archways with columns. In 1915, there were calls to demolish the building to create a pedestrian mall on the north side of the Virginia State Capitol, but the plan did not go forward. The building was used as a courthouse and center of local government until the 1970s when the current city hall building was constructed across the street.</p>
<p>In 1969, Old City Hall was listed on National Register of Historic Places and was designated a U.S. National Landmark in 1971 after it was spared from demolition a second time. Today, the building is used as government office space. Despite undergoing renovations it retains many of the original features, making it a remarkably well-preserved example of 19th century Gothic Revival architecture from Richmond’s past.</p>
<p><strong>Citation</strong>:<em> Glass plate Negative of Old City Hall Building,</em> <em>Manuscripts and Special Collections, Visual Studies Collection, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia</em></p>
Standards
Social Studies: CE.1, CE.3, GOVT.1, GOVT.8, GOVT.9<br /><br />Art: 5.14, 7.12, AI.3, AI.6<br /><br />Science: PH.1, PH.4
Suggested Questions
<p><strong>Preview Activity</strong></p>
<p>Look at It: Look at the image. What makes this style building stand out? Why might the architect have chosen to use this style when designing the building?</p>
<p><strong>Post Activities</strong></p>
<p>STEM STAT: You are working with historic preservationists to find way to restore the original features of the building while making it functional as a 21st century office space. What would you suggest based on the design and structure of the building? How would you go about redesigning the structure to accommodate 21st century needs? What resources would be needed to achieve the desired outcome?</p>
<p>Artistic Expression: Create a print advertisement to encourage tourists to take a tour of Old City Hall. Be sure to include information about the unique architecture and location of the building.</p>
<p>Food For Thought: Old City Hall was spared from demolition twice in its history. Why would people work to save such a building? Why would some want to demolish the building? Consider its location in downtown Richmond, changing styles of architecture, and the cost effectiveness in the upkeep of such the building.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Old City Hall, Glass Plate Negative, Richmond, 1931
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1931
African American History
Government and Civics
Reform Movements